Ice cubes, incidentally, can be used when transporting and keeping worms on an extended fishing trip. Try the following method on your next trip: in the center of your bait box, which should measure about 12 x 12 x 8 inches if you’re carrying 300 or so worms, clear a space in the bedding. Next, fill a glass jar or plastic container with ice cubes, screw the top back on and put it in a plastic bag. Place the container in the center of the box and push the bedding soil around it. The ice will keep the soil cool and dampened it will stay that way until the cubes melt. In hot weather, worms will actually crowd around the jar. The purpose of the plastic is to seal in condensation. With out the plastic, the soil would become too soggy for worms.

Fishermen, are you tired of trying to find worms at the bottom of a can? Take a can and remove both ends and replace with plastic lids. When your worms are all at the bottom, turn the can upside down.

When fishing with worms, the hook should be carefully placed through the center of the large band located 2/3rds the way up on the worms body. The band will appear as a ring of flesh separating the lower portion of the worm from the upper portion. You may use a “float”, or “bobber” when fishing with worms, with the bobber being placed 18 to 36″ above the hook. Some anglers simply let out about ten feet of line, and gently toss the worm (hooked) under a large tree overlooking the water, or boat dock, or other shaded cover. Just let the worm sink naturally to the bottom, slowly reeling in (one reel handle revolution per ten seconds) until you feel that strike, or watch the line seem to start going out on it’s own.

Bait worms are not the only natural baits. Look around any body of water for frogs, caterpillars, grasshoppers, leeches, crawdads, just about any insect of any type hooked and tossed into a pond or lake can easily produce the evenings dinner!

The 5-4 ruling comes in the case of Genovevo Salinas, who was convicted of a 1992 murder. During police questioning, and before he was arrested or read his Miranda rights, Salinas answered some questions but did not answer when asked if a shotgun he had access to would match up with the murder weapon.

Prosecutors in Texas used his silence on that question in convicting him of murder, saying it helped demonstrate his guilt. Salinas appealed, saying his Fifth Amendment rights to stay silent should have kept lawyers from using his silence against him in court. Texas courts disagreed, saying pre-Miranda silence is not protected by the Constitution.

The high court upheld that decision.

The Fifth Amendment protects Americans against forced self-incrimination, with the Supreme Court saying that prosecutors cannot comment on a defendant’s refusal to testify at trial. The courts have expanded that right to answering questions in police custody, with police required to tell people under arrest they have a right to remain silent without it being used in court.

Prosecutors argued that since Salinas was answering some questions — therefore not invoking his right to silence — and since he wasn’t under arrest and wasn’t compelled to speak, his silence on the incriminating question doesn’t get constitutional protection.

Salinas’ “Fifth Amendment claim fails because he did not expressly invoke the privilege against self-incrimination in response to the officer’s question,” Justice Samuel Alito said. “It has long been settled that the privilege `generally is not self-executing’ and that a witness who desires its protection `must claim it.”‘

The court decision was down its conservative/liberal split, with Alito’s judgment joined by Chief Justice John Roberts and Justices Anthony Kennedy, Clarence Thomas and Antonin Scalia.

Liberal Justices Stephen Breyer, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Sonia Sotomayor and Elena Kagan dissented. “In my view the Fifth Amendment here prohibits the prosecution from commenting on the petitioner’s silence in response to police questioning,” Breyer said in the dissent.

Salinas was charged in 1993 with the previous year’s shooting deaths of two men in Houston. Police found shotgun shells at the crime scene, and after going to the home where Salinas lived with his parents, obtained a shotgun kept inside the house by his father. Ballistic reports showed the shells matched the shotgun, but police declined to prosecute Salinas.

Police decided to charge him after one of his friends said that he had confessed, but Salinas evaded police for years. He was arrested him in 2007, but his first trial ended in a mistrial. It was during his second trial that prosecutors aggressively tried to use his silence about the shotgun in closing remarks to the jury.

Salinas was sentenced to 20 years in prison. The Texas Court of Appeals and the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals upheld the conviction, with the latter court saying “pre-arrest, pre-Miranda silence is not protected by the Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination, and that prosecutors may comment on such silence regardless of whether a defendant testifies.”

The case is Salinas v. Texas, 12-246.

Roughly one in three Americans say the former security contractor who leaked details of top-secret U.S. surveillance activity is a patriot and should not be prosecuted, according to a Reuters/Ipsos poll released on Wednesday.

Some 23 percent of those surveyed said former National Security Agency contractor Edward Snowden is a traitor while 31 percent said he is a patriot. Another 46 percent said they did not know.

Snowden, 29, revealed last week that the NSA is monitoring a wide swath of telephone and Internet activity as part of its counterterrorism efforts.

“I’m neither traitor nor hero. I’m an American,” Snowden told the South China Post, an English-language newspaper in Hong Kong, in an interview published on Wednesday.

U.S. authorities have said they are weighing possible criminal charges against Snowden, who was an employee of Virginia-based consultant Booz Allen Hamilton when he leaked documents indicating the NSA’s surveillance of Americans is much broader than had been disclosed publicly.

In the Reuters/Ipsos poll, 35 percent of those surveyed said Snowden should not face charges while 25 percent said he should be prosecuted to the full extent of the law. Another 40 percent said they did not know.

Snowden told the South China Post he intends to stay in Hong Kong and fight any effort to extradite him to the United States to face legal action.

The online survey of 645 Americans was conducted on Tuesday and Wednesday. It has a credibility interval of plus or minus 4.4 percentage points for each result.

Snowden’s revelations, first reported by Britain’s Guardian newspaper and the Washington Post, have fueled a national discussion over how the United States should balance its national security efforts with Americans’ right to privacy in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, attacks.

The disclosures have sparked a mix of condemnation and praise. Many members of Congress – which for years had received secret briefings on the NSA’s surveillance tactics – have been particularly critical of Snowden. House of Representatives Speaker John Boehner, the top Republican in Washington, called Snowden a “traitor” in a television interview, a sentiment echoed by U.S. intelligence officials.

Snowden also has been the focus of several online support campaigns, an indication that his effort to expose the surveillance tactics has resonated with some Americans.

A petition urging President Barack Obama to pardon Snowden for any crimes he may have committed has collected 63,000 signatures on the White House website since it was posted by a reader on Sunday. The White House reviews and responds to any petition that gathers more than 100,000 signatures.

Reuters/Ipsos polling conducted since the leaks were revealed last Thursday have found Americans divided over the merits of the NSA surveillance program.

Some 45 percent of those surveyed say the program is acceptable under some circumstances, while 37 percent say it is completely unacceptable, the polling found. Only 6 percent say they have no objections to the program.

Intelligence officials are in the middle of their all-out public relations campaign following reports from The Guardian and The Washington Post revealing the National Security Agency collects all phone call metadata and most of the Internet. Their rousing defense of the surveillance programs at times suggests intelligence officials would benefit from a public debate, because they would be forced to hear people explain how ridiculous they sound. Take, for example, former NSA chief Michael Hayden, who tells The Daily Beast’s Eli Lake that even back when the agency was conducting warrantless wiretapping — eavesdropping on phone calls between Americans and people overseas in the mid-2000s — agents had a significant check on their power in the form of an office motivational poster.

“At the height of the terrorist surveillance program,” Hayden said, “when you walked into the office where this was being done, you saw these people work with headphones [and] there was a big sign hanging from the ceiling that said: ‘What Constitutes a U.S. Person?’” While a poster undoubtedly provides a strong check on executive power, we unfortunately have evidence that the poster was not 100-percent effective.

Members of the House of Representatives were briefed on the NSA’s programs on Tuesday by a “phalanx of FBI, legal and intelligence officials,” the Associated Press reported, but many said their questions were unanswered. Minnesota Rep. Keith Ellison said he had “more questions,” but “I can’t say what they are,” The Hill‘s Jeremy Herb and Mike Lillis report. Maryland Rep. Steny Hoyer felt the same, saying, “I haven’t fully formed my questions that I want to get answered.” California Rep. Brad Sherman had his question figured out, though. He said that while intelligence officials say they won’t dig through their massive data sets unless queries meet “very clear standards,” “we don’t have courts making sure those standards are always followed.”

One reason the NSA’s PR offensive must be so vigorous is that its old PR strategy sounds a lot like lies. In a March 12 Senate hearing, Sen. Ron Wyden asked Director of National Intelligence James Clapper, ”Does the NSA collect any type of data at all on millions or hundreds of millions of Americans?” Clapper responded, “No, sir… Not wittingly.” Since last week, it’s become clear that Clapper’s statement was not exactly true. Clapper’s given a series of interviews to explain the comment, each time getting closer to admitting that what he said was not true.

Clapper explained that comment to National Journal‘s Michael Hirsh last week by saying, “What I said was, the NSA does not voyeuristically pore through U.S. citizens’ e-mails. I stand by that.” A few days later he told NBC’s Andrea Mitchell, “I responded in what I thought was the most truthful, or least untruthful manner, by saying no.” He said his comment was “too cute by half.” Wyden revealed he’d sent Clapper the question in advance, so he had time to think of a way to answer the question that was even less untruthful. Wyden’s office also gave Clapper a chance to amend his statement, at which point he could have made it less cute. Washington Post fact-checker Glenn Kessler gave Clapper three Pinocchios on Wednesday. Michigan Rep. Justin Amash was less geneous, demanding Clapper’s resignation on Facebook. “Members of Congress can’t make informed decisions on intelligence issues when the head of the intelligence community willfully makes false statements,” Amash said. “Perjury is a serious crime. Mr. Clapper should resign immediately.”

Clapper wasn’t the only official who was cute with facts. In February, NSA general counsel Rajesh De gave a speech to debunk “false myths” about the agency. Those were that the NSA “is a vacuum that indiscriminately sweeps up and stores global communications”; that it “is spying on Americans at home and abroad with questionable or no legal basis”; and that it “operates in the shadows free from external scrutiny or any true accountability.” De’s debunking has been debunked.

NSA director Keith Alexander will testify before the Senate on Wednesday, as will Richard McFeely, the executive assistant director of the FBI’s criminal, cyber, response, and services branch. Wyden says he wants Clapper to come back to the Senate to give “straight answers.”

There have been people and events in the news over the last couple weeks/months that you may have missed. Here is some of the highlights to help catch you up

Adam Kokesh

Adam Kokesh

I’ll just hit the highlights of this clown. Adam Kokesh is a former Marine. he enlisted in the reserves in 1999, served in Falujah and was in the 3rd CAG as a liason. He was demoted from sergeant to corporal in 2004 for bringing home a pistol from Iraq that was given to him as a gift. He received the Combat Action Ribbon and the Navy Commendation Medal for his combat in Fallujah. After his discharge, he was a member of the IRR (Individual Ready Reserve and in 2007 he participated in an anti-war protest where he was photographed and named in the caption in the Washington Post. The Marines opened up an investigation for misconduct on him for appearing at a political event in uniform, which is against the UCMJ. Kokesh responded to the major heading the investigation in a way that got his discharge changed from honorable to general under honorable conditions.
Mr. Kokesh was a member of Iraq Veterans Against the War. While a member of the IVAW, he was arrested in 2007 twice during protests. In 2011 he worked with Code Pink and was detained for organizing a dance ‘flash mob’ on the Jefferson monument.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E5nJIx8CA8I

In 2010 Kokesh made a failed attempt at a congressional run for New Mexico’s 3rd congressional district, most of the donations to his campaign came from out of state.

In 2013, Kokesh was arrested at a marijuana legalization event he was speaking at.

Also in 2013, Adam Kokesh tried to form an armed march on Washington D.C. via Facebook to protest the government and primarily 2nd amendment rights violations. Over 5500 people signed up to go but the March on D.C. was cancelled and instead a March on all 50 state capitals was set to go on July 4th, but also was cancelled. He has a radio show called Adam vs The Man, and you only need to watch 1 or 2 of his videos to see that he is really in love with the sound of his own voice. He also is a regular contributor to RT.com (Russia Today) which is basically a conspiracy theory site and he also has made appearances with Alex Jones.

Behold your leader

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m0RidBHITGk

Let me just say straight out, Kokesh is the LAST person that should be leading anything like this. He supposedly has written a book (though it has not been released) based on his college thesis called Hot, Dirty Dangerous, which talks about his time in Fallujah. In this book he admits to having PTSD and major psychological issues with crowds. Above you can see that he’s selling his favorite bong to help gain some followers and probably a little money. Mr. Kokesh also has compared himself to Thomas Jefferson. Sorry Adam, not even close brother. But if you think that the stoner with PTSD that has panic attacks around crowds should be the guy that leads an armed march into Washington D.C. while giving the LEO’s, military, secret service in the area a 2 month advance notice via Facebook, you might want to rethink your strategy and who you follow. Kokesh is a glory hound who fashions himself in the mold of Alex Jones and other misinformation/fear merchants. He is someone that buys the bullshit he himself is selling and he will likely get a lot of people hurt but himself will no doubt be nowhere around where the action is happening and civilians are face to face with cops and soldiers.

Mark Kessler

Chief Mark Kessler

Another person to watch is Chief Mark Kessler.
Mark Kessler is chief of police in the Pittsburgh suburb of Gilberton. Kessler gained notoriety by founding a citizen militia called the Constitutional Security Force. Chief Kessler actually drafted legislation called The 2nd amendment Preservation Resolution and it was adopted by the Gilberton Borough Council on January 24th, 2013. As of this writing, Chief Kessler’s CSF movement had 38 chapters in 38 states. Chief Kessler has taken up the banner of Kokesh’s marches (though he emphatically denies being associated with Kokesh) and is currently gathering people via Facebook.
I have done some digging on Kessler to see if he has any shady issues like Koesh behind him, and unless his skeletons are very deeply buried, he seems like a what you see is what you get kind of guy. I can’t really find anything ‘bad’ about him, he seems every bit a small town sheriff from PA.

Edward Snowden
Edward Snowden is a 29-year-old former technical assistant for the CIA and current employee of the defence contractor Booz Allen Hamilton. Snowden has been working at the National Security Agency for the last four years as an employee of various outside contractors, including Booz Allen and Dell. He is the whistleblower that brought the NSA’s Prizm program to light and let the whole world know the NSA is collecting data on them. Snowden left a $200k job in Hawaii and a fairly hot dancer  girlfriend. He could have shut his mouth, kept getting paid extremely well, living in Hawaii with a hot girlfriend, but instead decided to let the world know what was going on and then pretty much immediately go on the run. As of this writing his is hiding out in Hong Kong.

Michael Morell

In May 2010, Morell was sworn in as the Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, succeeding Stephen Kappes.^[3] From July 1, 2011, ^[4] to September 6, 2011, he served his first stint as Acting Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, following the appointment of Leon Panetta as Secretary of Defense. On November 9, 2012, Morell once again became Acting Director after David Petraeus^[5] following a sex scandal. Obama chose John Brennan, who was confirmed by the U.S. Senate by 12 to 3 vote on March 5, 2013.^[6]

Morell announced his resignation from the CIA on June 12, 2013He joined the CIA in 1980. He was chief of the CIA’s division on Asia, Pacific and Latin America. Most of his work in the agency was devoted to Asian projects. He also managed the staff that produced the Presidential Daily Briefings for President George W. Bush Before his 2010 nomination as Deputy Director, Morell served as Director for Intelligence, a position he had held since 2008. Before that, he served as the CIA’s first Associate Deputy Director from 2006 to 2008. Now while this may be total coincidence, it seems somewhat suspect that as the shitstorm about PRIZM exploded, the CIA director decides that this is the best time to abandon ship and is joining the president’s security advisory board.

Due to record droughts, many states have been creating or reviewing their legislation for harvesting rainwater. To me the idea of there being a question whether or not you can harvest water from the sky is not a question at all, but the government at hand doesn’t see it that way.

Over the last 5 years, many states have been working on legislation to clarify how, when and where rainwater can be harvested and used.. Rainwater harvesting is the act of utilizing a collection system to use rainwater for outdoor uses, plumbing, and, in some cases, consumption. States have also passed legislation encouraging the use of Graywater. Graywater refers to the reuse of water drained from baths, showers, washing machines, and sinks (household wastewater excluding toilet wastes) for irrigation and other water conservation applications.

States must ensure water-quality standards and public health concerns are met. In some states, such as Colorado, previous water law stated that all precipitation belonged to existing water-rights owners, and that rain needed to flow to join its rightful water drainage. However, a 2007 study conducted by the Colorado Water Conservation Board and Douglas County determined that only 3 percent of rain actually reached a stream or the ground. Colorado followed-up by enacting two pieces of legislation, one allowing certain types of well owners to use rainwater and one authorizing pilot development projects.

Texas and Ohio are among states that have devoted a considerable amount of attention to this issue, and have numerous enacted laws regulating the practice of rainwater harvesting. Texas offers a sales tax exemption on the purchase of rainwater harvesting equipment. Both Texas and Ohio allow the practice even for potable purposes. Oklahoma passed the Water for 2060 Act in 2012, to promote pilot projects for rainwater and graywater use among other water saving techniques.

Arizona

Arizona had a tax credit for water conservation systems that included collection of rainwater; however, the credit expired on Jan. 1, 2012. The credit is equal to 25 percent of the cost of the system. The maximum credit in a taxable year could not exceed $1,000. From 2007 to 2010, over $360,000 was credited to homeowners that purchased a water conservation system.  Arizona Revised Statutes §43-1090.01

AZ H 2363 (2012) – Established a joint legislative study committee on macro-harvested water. The committee shall study, analyze and evaluate issues arising from the collection and recovery of macro-harvested water, including reviewing scientific data on surface water, rainwater harvesting, methodology costs and benefits, potential impacts on water rights, downstream users, and potential aquifer management issues and groundwater management issues.
AZ H 2830 – This bill allows the governing body of a city or town to establish an energy and water savings account that consists of a designated pool of capital investment monies to fund energy or water savings projects in public facilities, including rainwater harvesting systems. (Arizona Revised Statutes §9-499.16)

Colorado
Colorado had some of the nation’s strictest rainwater harvest laws, essentially prohibiting the practice. In 2009, two laws were passed that loosened restrictions.
CO SB 80 allowed residential property owners who rely on certain types of wells to collect and use rainwater. Colorado Revised Statutes §37-90-105
CO HB 1129 authorized 10 pilot projects where captured precipitation was used in new real estate developments for non-potable uses. Colorado Revised Statutes §37-60-115
Resources:

• Colorado Division of Water Resources outlined information on SB 80
• Colorado Legislative Council Issue Brief on SB 80 and HB 1129 and Rainwater Harvesting in Colorado
• Criteria and guidelines for pilot projects

Illinois
In 2009, Illinois created the Green Infrastructure for Clean Water Act which relates to water conservation, efficiency, infrastructure and management while promoting rainwater harvesting. Illinois Revised Statutes Chapter 415 §56
IL H 991 of 2011 amended the Homeowners’ Solar Rights Act. It requires  that within 120 days after a homeowners’ association, common interest community association, or condominium unit owners’ association receives a request for a policy statement or an application from an association member, the association shall adopt an energy policy statement regarding: (i) the location, design, and architectural requirements of solar energy systems; and (ii) whether a wind energy collection, rain water collection, or composting system is allowed, and, if so, the location, design, and architectural requirements of those systems. Illinois Revised Statutes Chapter 765 § 165/20
North Carolina
NC H 609 of 2011 directed the Department of Environment and Natural Resources to provide statewide outreach and technical assistance regarding water efficiency, which shall include the development of best management practices for community water efficiency and conservation. This shall include employing water reuse practices that include harvesting rainwater and using grey water. North Carolina General Statutes § Session Law 143-355

Ohio
Ohio allows rainwater harvesting, even for potable purposes. Private water systems that provide drinking water to fewer than 25 people are regulated by the Ohio Department of Health (ODH). Ohio also has a Private Water Systems Advisory Council within the ODH. The nine member council is appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the Senate. Ohio Revised Code §3701.344 and Ohio Revised Code §3701.346

Oklahoma
OK HB 3055 of 2012 created the “Water for 2060 Act.” The bill initiates grants for pilot programs. The pilot projects shall be innovative programs that will serve as models for other communities in the state. Pilot projects may include, but are not limited to, community conservation demonstration projects, water use accounting programs, retrofit projects, school education projects, Xeriscape demonstration gardens, projects which promote efficiency, recycling and reuse of water, and information campaigns on capturing and using harvested rainwater and gray water.
Oregon
Since Oregon allows for alternate methods of construction of rainwater harvesting systems, the Oregon Building Codes Division (BCD) created methods for both potable and non-potable systems. Oregon Revised Statute §455.060

Senate Bill 79, passed in 2009, directs the BCD to increase energy efficiency, by including rainwater harvesting, in new and repaired buildings.

Resources:

• Potable Alternate Method
• Non-Potable Alternate Method
• Oregon Smart Guide – Rainwater Harvesting

Rhode Island
RI HB 7070 of 2012 created a tax credit for the installation of cisterns to collect rainwater. Any individual or business that installs a cistern on their property to collect rainwater for use in their home or business shall be entitled to a state income tax credit of ten percent (10%) of the cost of installing the cistern not to exceed one thousand dollars ($1,000). Each entity shall be allowed only one tax credit over the life of the cistern unless they are replacing an existing cistern with a larger cistern and have not received the maximum tax credit of one thousand dollars ($1,000). A cistern is defined as a container holding fifty (50) or more gallons of diverted rainwater or snow melt, either above or below ground.

Texas
Texas HB 3391 of 2011 is one of the most far-reaching and comprehensive pieces of legislation regarding rainwater harvesting in recent years. Among its provisions:

• Allows financial institutions to consider making loans for developments that will use harvested rainwater as the sole source of water supply.
• Requires rainwater harvesting system technology for potable and nonpotable indoor use and landscape watering be incorporated into the design and construction of each new state building with a roof measuring at least 50,000 square feet that is located in an area of the state in which the average annual rainfall is at least 20 inches.
• Requires the development of rules regarding the installation and maintenance of rainwater harvesting systems that are used for indoor potable purposes and connected to a public water supply system, prior to this bill it could only be used for nonpotable purposes. The rules must include criteria to ensure that safe drinking water standards are met and the water does not come in contact with the public water supply at a location off of the property.
• Requires a person who intends to connect a rainwater harvesting system to a public water supply system for potable purposes to give written notice to the municipality or the owner or operator of the public water supply system. A municipality or public water supply system may not be held liable for any adverse health effects allegedly caused by the consumption of water collected by a rainwater harvesting system that is connected to a public water supply system and is used for potable purposes if the municipality or the public water supply system is in compliance with the sanitary standards for drinking water.
• Encourages each municipality and county to promote rainwater harvesting at residential, commercial, and industrial facilities through incentives such as the provision at a discount of rain barrels or rebates for water storage facilities.  Requires the Texas Water Development Board (TWDB) to ensure that training on rainwater harvesting is available for the members of the permitting staffs of municipalities and counties at least quarterly. School districts are strongly encouraged to implement rainwater harvesting systems.
• Prohibits a municipality or county from denying a building permit solely because the facility will implement rainwater harvesting.

Other Texas Statutes
Texas Health and Safety Code §341.042 outlines standards for harvested rainwater. Includes health and safety standards for treatment and collection methods for harvested rainwater intended for drinking, cooking, or bathing.

Texas Property Code §202.007 prevents homeowners associations from banning outdoor water-conserving measures, including rainwater harvesting installations. The legislation allows homeowners associations to require screening or shielding to obscure view of the tanks.

Texas Tax Code §151.355 allows for a state sales tax exemption on the purchase of rainwater harvesting equipment.

Resources:
The Texas Manual on Rainwater Harvesting provides information on the practice and outlines sales tax exemptions at the state and local level (pg. 53).
In 2005, the legislature ordered the creation of a Texas Rainwater Harvesting Evaluation Committee; see here for its 2006 Report to Texas Legislature with Recommendations.
The Texas Water Development Board sponsors the Texas Rain Catcher Award to advance the technology, educate the public, and to recognize excellence in the application of rainwater harvesting systems in the state.

Utah
Utah allows for the direct capture and storage of rainwater on land owned or leased by the person responsible for the collection. If a person collects or stores precipitation in an underground storage container, only one container with a maximum capacity of no more than 2,500 gallons may be used. For a covered storage container, no more than two containers may be used, and the maximum storage capacity of any one container shall not be greater than 100 gallons. Utah Code Annotated §73-3-1.5

Virginia
In 2001, Virginia passed Senate Bill 1416, which gave income tax credit to individuals and corporations that installed rainwater harvesting systems. “There is hereby established the Alternative Water Supply Assistance Fund to be administered by the Department to provide grants to localities to be used for entering into agreements with businesses and individuals to harvest and collect rainwater for such uses as determined necessary by the locality, including, but not limited to, irrigation and conservation.” However money has not been allocated for these purposes.

Va. Code Ann. § 32.1-248.2 – Requires the development of rainwater harvesting and graywater guidelines to ease demands on public treatment works and water supply systems and promote conservation.
Resources:
Virginia Rainwater Harvesting and Use Guidelines

Washington
In Washington, state law allows counties to reduce rates for storm water control facilities that utilize rainwater harvesting. Rates may be reduced by a minimum of ten percent for any new or remodeled commercial building. However, the rate can be reduced more than ten percent, depending on the county. Kitsap County’s Ordinance reduces surface and stormwater fees by 50 percent.  Washington Revised Code §36.89.080

Uses for harvested rainwater may include water closets, urinals, hose bibbs, industrial applications, and for irrigation purposes. Other uses may be allowed when first approved by the authority having jurisdiction. Washington Revised Code §51-56-1623

Resources:
In 2009, the Washington Department of Ecology issued an Interpretive Policy Statement clarifying that a water right is not required for rooftop rainwater harvesting.
Washington Department of Ecology Rainwater Collection website
U.S. Virgin Islands
Since 1964, the U.S. Virgin Islands has required most buildings to be constructed with a self-sustaining potable water system, such as a well or rainwater collection system.
U.S. Virgin Island Code Title 29 §308

There have been some notable changes in 2012 to rainwater harvesting legislation.

First up..Obamacare
From Wikipedia:

The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA),^[1] commonly called Obamacare^[2][3] or the Affordable Care Act (ACA), is a United States federal statute signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. Together with the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, it represents the most significant government expansion and regulatory overhaul of the U.S. healthcare system since the passage of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965.^[4]

The ACA is aimed at increasing the rate of health insurance coverage for Americans and reducing the overall costs of health care. It provides a number of mechanisms—including mandates, subsidies, and tax credits—to employers and individuals to increase the coverage rate.^[5][6] Additional reforms aim to improve healthcare outcomes and streamline the delivery of health care. The ACA requires insurance companies to cover all applicants and offer the same rates regardless of pre-existing conditions or sex.^[7][8] The Congressional Budget Office projected that the ACA will lower both future deficits^[9] and Medicare spending

However the Congressional Budget Office has determined that Obamacare will cost about 1.93 trillion dollars, leave 30 million uninsured and cost the average family about $20,000 a year.

26 states oppose Obamacare
Montana
Wyoming
North Dakota
South Dakota
Nebraska
Kansas
Oklahoma
Arizona
Texas
Missouri
Lousiana
Wisconsin
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Tennessee
Mississippi
Alabama
Georgia
Florida
South Carolina
North Carolina
Virgina
Pennsylvania
New Jersey
Maine
Delaware

Of these 26 states,. 24 of them have Republican Governors. The remaining 2 (Montana and Missouri have conservative electorates and Republican controlled legislatures).

A total of 26 Republican-led or Republican-leaning states have declined to establish insurance exchanges, a centerpiece of the reforms ushered in by the Affordable Care Act, ceding control of a critical element of their health care system to the federal government.

The ACA requires the creation of the one-stop marketplaces called exchanges to connect buyers and sellers of health insurance — the vehicle through which the law would expand coverage and protect consumers. The law encourages states to build their own exchanges under the guidelines. If they refuse, the federal government will take on the task. By last Friday’s deadline, just 17 states and Washington, D.C., submitted their plans for exchanges. Just four of them are governed by Republicans — Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico and Utah. An additional seven states intend to build their exchanges in partnership with the federal government. The exchanges are scheduled to go live on Jan. 1, 2014.

Next, the gun control measures presented by Obama’s administration

The Sheriff associations of these states oppose the Obama administrations proposed gun control measures. Many of these states not only oppose the administrations proposed gun control measures, but also have enacted legislation that will make any government official trying to enforce gun control legislation a felon that will be arrested and incarcerated for up to 5 years.

California
Colorado
Florida
Georgia
Illinois
Indiana
Kentucky
Michigan
Minnesota
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
New Mexico
Oklahoma
South Carolina
Texas
Utah
Wyoming

Prevention is the best medicine

• Pull out any weak plants. They may already be infected. If not, they will attract predators. Pull the plant and dispose of it away from the garden area.

• Build healthy, organic soil. Natural composting methods, mulching and top-dressing your soil with compost or natural fertilizer is the best way to develop strong, vigorous plants.

• Seaweed mulch or spray. Seaweed contains trace elements such as iron, zinc, barium, calcium, sulfur and magnesium, which promote healthy development in plants. Seaweed fertilizer in mulch or spray form will enhance growth and give plants the strength to withstand disease. Seaweed mulch also repels slugs.

• Minimize insect habitat. Clear garden area of debris and weeds which are breeding places for insects. Use clean mulch.

• Interplant and rotate crops. Insect pests are often plant specific. When plantings are mixed, pests are less likely to spread throughout a crop. Rotating crops each year is a common method to avoid re-infestation of pests which have over-wintered in the bed.

• Keep foliage dry.Water early so foliage will be dry for most of the day. Wet foliage encourages insect and fungal damage to your plants. See our page on drip-irrigation for methods of delivering water to the root systems without wetting the foliage.

• Disinfect. If you’ve been working with infested plants, clean your tools before moving on to other garden areas. This will reduce the speed of invading insects.

Beneficial insects are insects which you can attract to your garden, or buy from catalogues, which prey on harmful insects or their larvae. There are many different species for specific problems, and more information is available at several of the links listed on this page.

Brachonids,Chalcids and Ichneumon Wasps
These small beneficial insects destroy leaf-eating caterpillars. You can attract them to your garden by planting carrots, celery, parsley, caraway and Queen Anne’s lace, all members of the Umbelliferae family. These plants are easy to grow, and some should be left to flower. It’s the flower that attracts the insects.

Ladybugs
These common insects consume aphids, mites, whiteflies and scale. They can be attracted to your garden by planting members of the daisy family (Compositae), tansy or yarrow. Ladybugs are also available from catalogues online.

Lacewings
Lacewings are avid consumers of aphids, and their larva eat aphids and other varieties of other insect pests. They are attracted to “composite” flowers, such as yarrow, goldenrod, black-eyed susan’s and asters. Lacewings can also be purchased online at the sources listed below, and released directly into your garden.

Hover-flies
Hover-flies are avid consumers of aphids, and the larva of hover-flies eat aphids and other insect pests. Like the Lacewings, they are attracted to “composite” flowers, such as yarrow, goldenrod, black-eyed susan’s and asters. Seeds for these flowers are available online, or at most garden centers.

Praying Mantis
These large insects have an appetite for most garden pests. Praying mantis eggs are set out in the garden where they hatch and quickly grow to adult size. The eggs are available through mail-order and online catalogues.

Nematodes
Effective against cutworms, a common pest which destroys sprouts before they can grow into seedlings. Nematodes are also effective against beetles and root weevil larvae.

Nematode eggs are microscopic and come in a small sponge a million at a time. These are mixed with water and applied to the soil, where they hatch and go to work. If they get on foliage, wash them off to the ground.

Nematodes are harmless to humans and pets. They are available in some garden centers and through mail-order catalogues, and at the businesses linked below.

Garden ‘Mini – Insectary’ - You can also set aside a small garden plot of flowering plants designed to attract and harbor beneficial insects. These ‘good’ insects prey on many common garden insect pests, and offer the gardener a safer, natural alternative to pesticides. Click for more information about creating a Garden Mini Insectary

Non-toxic and Homemade Remedies Homemade remedies are inexpensive and, best of all, you know what is going into your garden. Many homemade sprays have been used with good results to control harmful insects. They usually involve noxious (but non-toxic) ingredients such as garlic, cayenne, stinging nettles or horsetail which are diluted in water and blended to be sprayed on the plants. Here are a few simple formulas:

• Soft-bodied insects (mites, aphids, mealybugs):
  Mix one tablespoon canola oil and a few drops of Ivory soap into a quart of water. Shake well and pour into a spray bottle. Spray plant from above down, and from below up to get the underside of the leaves. The oil smothers the insects. 
• Grubs:
  For lawn or garden grubs, there is a natural remedy called milky spore. The granules are spread on the soil and cause the grubs to contract a disease that kills them. This natural control affects only the grubs, leaving the beneficial organisms unharmed. Milky spore multiplies over time and will sit inactive, waiting for grubs to infect. One treatment is said to last 40 years. The grubs are actually the larvae of Japanese beetles. So, when you kill the grubs you kill the beetle.
• Mites and other insects:
  Mix two tablespoons of hot pepper sauce or cayenne pepper with a few drops of Ivory soap into a quart of water. Let stand overnight, then stir and pour into a spray bottle and apply as above. Shake container frequently during application. 
• Earwigs, slugs, and other soft-bodied garden pests:
  Sprinkle diatomaceous earth over plants and around edges of garden beds. The diatoms particles are very small and sharp – but only harmful to the small exoskeletons of insects, slugs and snails. Insects cannot become immune to its action, as it is a mechanical killer – not a chemical one.For more information about nontoxic slug and snail control, read our article Natural Slug Control.
• Fungal diseases:
  Mix two tablespoons of baking soda into a quart of water. Pour into a spray container and spray affected areas. Repeat this process every few days until problem ceases.
• Powdery mildew:
  Mix equal parts milk and water and spray on infected plants. Three treatments a week apart should control the disease. 
• Insects and fungal diseases:
  Combine one tablespoon of cooking oil, two tablespoons of baking soda and a few drops of Ivory soap into a quart of water. Pour into a spray container and apply as above.
• Insects on fruit trees:
  Lime sulfur and dormant oil, available at nurseries and garden centers, can be sprayed on the trunk and branches of dormant fruit trees. This concoction will suffocate insect egg cases. Because the oily spray is heavy compared to the other water-based sprays, you’ll need a pump sprayer. These are fairly inexpensive, and are available to rent from some nurseries. Only use this method while the tree is dormant, however, or it can kill the tree.Commercial dormant oils may contain petroleum oil or kerosene. A less toxic method is to make your own. Mix 1 cup vegetable oil and 2 tbsp liquid soap in one gallon (4 liters) water. Mix the soap and oil first, then add the water. Shake often during use.

Caution: Sprays which kill harmful insects will also kill beneficial insects. Use these homemade remedies selectively, only spraying the infected plants. Apply them early in the morning or just before dark. Re-apply after a rain. Wear protective clothing when spraying insecticides.
 Traps and Barriers

Yellow Flypaper: Old-fashioned fly-paper is very effective in the garden for aphids and whiteflies. In fact, any board or heavy paper painted yellow and coated with a sticky substance such as tanglefoot (available at garden centers) will do the job.

Apple Maggot Traps: The apple maggot is the most destructive pest of apples grown in home orchards. This insect is a type of fly which pierces the skin of ripening fruit and lays eggs. In 5 – 10 days, the eggs hatch a maggot which burrows through the fruit. These pests can be managed by using sticky red sphere traps. Hang one trap for every 100 apples in a tree. Click for more information, or to buy apple maggot traps.
Pheremones: These biological mating scents attract insects to a trap which is coated with a sticky substance. Pheremone traps are effective, but remember they are “attracting” the insects – be sure to position them on your garden perimeter or you’ll attract outside pests into your garden! Available at larger garden centers, usually in the $5 – $15 range.

Floating Row Covers: Floating row covers consist of lightweight opaque material which is draped over the garden bed. Sunlight and water go through, but insects and birds are kept out. The material is so light that the growing plants simply push it up as they grow – like Jiffy Pop popcorn. The edges of the row cover need to be anchored with rocks or boards or the wind will lift it. The material is “spun” which resists tearing, but usually begins to break down after a few years. Row cover material comes in rolls so you can make a continuous cover no matter how long the garden bed.

Row covers are great for protecting seedlings. They are even more useful throughout the growing season when placed over vegetables such as carrots, beets, broccoli, swiss chard and spinach because it makes an effective barrier against flying insects looking for these plants to lay their eggs on.

Cloche: The cloche is like a miniature greenhouse for your seedbeds and young plants, and acts as a barrier against pests. Unlike the floating row cover, however, the cloche has to be opened on hot days and for watering, and this presents an opportunity for pests to find the plants. But because the cloche helps seedlings and young plants get well established, the enhanced natural resistance of stronger healthy plants is the best defence against pests and disease. Click here for more info or for plans to build your own portable garden cloche.

Barrier Paper: Scraps of waxed cardboard from milk cartons, or a scrap of roofing felt are a simple yet effective defence against cabbage moths. Cabbage moth larva kill young sprouts of the Brassica family (broccoli, cabbage, brussel sprouts, kale or cauliflower).

Cut into 2″ squares and slit one side into the center; make another small slit crossways. Open the slit and slide the square so the seedling stem is in the center. This prevents the cabbage moth from laying eggs at the base of the sprouts. Leave in place – as the plant grows it will simply push the slit open wider. Be sure to apply as soon as the sprout appears, or the moth will beat you to it!

Note: For recipes that require liquid dish detergent, use the basic stuff–nothing fancy with added bleach, nothing concentrated and no special antibacterial formulas. You can also substitute with a gentler liquid soap such as liquid castile or a perfume free, gentle liquid hand soap.

Update: As with all pesticides, take care when applying to food bearing plants, handling and storage of the pesticide. No one needs reminding I’m sure, but wash all produce well before consuming.

Rhubarb Leaf Mix

1 cup rhubarb leaves
6.5 cups water
1/4 cup liquid dish detergent or soap flakes

• Cover rhubarb leaves with water and bring to a boil. Boil for 20 minutes then remove from heat and cool. Strain then add 1/4 cup liquid dish detergent. Apply. Good for aphids, june beetles, spider mites, thrips.
• Rhubarb leaves are poisonous, take care when preparing and handling. Do not use on food bearing plants.

Garlic Tea

• Make your own garlic spray by boiling a pint of water, throw in roughly chopped garlic cloves and steep until the water cools. Remove garlic bits then apply.

Garlic, Peppers & Onion Insecticide

2 hot peppers
1 large onion
1 whole bulb of garlic
1/4 cup water

• Toss in the food processor and add water, blend until a mash is made. Cover mash with 1 gallon hot (not boiling) water and let stand 24 hours. Strain. Spray on roses, azaleas, vegetables to kill bug infestations. Bury mash in ground where bugs are heaviest. Good for thrips, aphids, grasshoppers, chewing and sucking insects.

Tomato Leaves Mix

• Crush leaves from a tomato plant and soak in water for a couple days. Strain then spray. Good for grasshopper and white fly control.
• Tomato leaves are poisonous, take care when preparing and handling. Do not use on food bearing plants.

Basil Tea

4 cups water
1 cup fresh basil (or 2 TBS dried)
1 tsp liquid dish detergent

• Bring water to a boil then add basil. Remove from heat, cover and steep until cool. Strain. Mix in the liquid detergent then apply. Good for aphids.

Onion Insect Repellent For Plants
*First published May 18, 2007 and moved to this page for better organization

Save Onion Peels & Bits To Make Your Own Garden Brew

• Save onion skins, peels and ends then refrigerate in an empty margarine-sized tub or ziploc bag until the container is full.
• Once you have enough, place the onion pieces in a pail and fill with warm water. Soak for a few days, up to a week. Optional: You can keep this on the patio in the sun to steep.
• After one week, strain the onion bits out and store the onion water in spray bottles. Bury the onion bits around plants that are prone to aphids, spiders and other pests.
• Spray both house and garden plants with the water to fight aphids and pests.

*You could also mix your garlic trimmings in with the onion pieces, bugs hate garlic too.

Salt Spray

2 TBS salt
1.5 gallons warm water

• Mix salt and water to dissolve, allow to cool to room temperature. Use for spider mites, caterpillars, cabbage worms and chewing insects.

Epsom Salt Spray

2 ounces of salt
2 gallons water

• Benefits: Helps with Black Spot, Mildew, Wilt and Rust

Slug Bait Trap

• Set out beer in shallow containers to attract slugs, they’ll drown in the beer. See more tips on this page.

Diatomaceous Earth

• An all natural solution for insects of all kinds (ants, snails, slugs, etc.). Sprinkle diatomaceous earth on top of soil around plants with pest problems.

Horticultural Oil Mix

1 TBS vegetable oil
1 tsp liquid dish detergent
2 cups water

• Fill a spray bottle with the ingredients then shake to mix.

Hot Pepper Recipe

1/2 cup hot peppers (or 2 teaspoons cayenne pepper)
1 quart water
1 tsp liquid dish detergent

• Bring water to a boil, remove from heat and add peppers. Cover and steep until cool. Strain then mix in soap. If using cayenne pepper, no need to bring water to a boil first. Apply.

Citrus Spray

2 cups orange peels (or lemons)
4 cups water

• Bring water to a boil, remove from heat and add peels. Cover and steep until cool. Strain and use. Use the lemon mixture to repel white flies.

Dish Detergent & Baking Soda

2 TBS liquid dish detergent
2 TBS baking soda
1 gallon water

• Mix all ingredients together then use.

Peppermint Tea

1 TBS peppermint essential oil (can also use an infusion made with mint leaves, increase amount to 1 cup infusion)
1 quart water

• Mix together and use as an insect spray (good for ants).

Japanese Beetle Bait Trap

2 cups water
1 mashed banana
1/2 cup sugar
1/2 cup wine
1/2 tsp yeast

• Mix ingredients together and put in an old margarine container, cover with lid and set container out in the hot sun for a day. The next day, remove lid and set in garden where the beetles have been spotted (use a shallow container).

Potato Leaves Tea

1 cup potato plant leaves
2 cups water

• Chop leaves then cover with hot water. Seal container and leave 24 hours in a sunny window. Strain then use.
• Potato leaves are poisonous, take care when preparing and handling. Do not use on food bearing plants.

Neem Spray

1 TBS Neem soap (shavings)
1 liter water

• Add soap to water then let sit for an hour. Shake bottle then use.

Mineral Oil Mix

3 parts oil per 100 parts water

• Benefits: Helps with Aphids, Codling Moth, Leaf Roller, Mealybugs, Scaled Insects, White Fly

Easy Soap Flakes Spray

2 TBS soap flakes (don’t use detergents)
dissolved in 1 quart water

• Benefits: Aphid control

Pest Prevention Concentrate
*First published February 1, 2008 and moved to this page for better organization

Vegetable Oil Can Be An Effective Ingredient For Organic Pest Control

Here’s a short and sweet recipe for both garden and houseplants. You can use this as a preventative spray as well as a bug and pest killer.

Ingredients:

1 cup Sunlight dish soap
1 TBS vegetable oil

Directions:

• Mix ingredients together then store in a plastic, airtight container.
• When you’re ready to use, take 1 to 2 teaspoons of the concentrate and mix with a quart of water. Pour into a spray bottle.
• When applying make sure to get underneath the leaves as well as the flower buds and new shoots.
• In hot weather, repeat every third day (3 applications over 7 days).
• Warm to cool weather, use once a week for 3 weeks.

Tips

• Apply the treatment on top of the leaves as well as underneath–don’t overdo it, excess can cause damage.
• Most recipes can be used effectively with just a weekly treatment. Excessive use may affect the plant as well as kill the good insects you want to encourage in your garden (earthworms, bees, ladybugs, etc.). If you aren’t seeing results with a 7 day treatment, you can bump it up to 5 days but watch carefully to make sure plants can handle it without being damaged.
• Avoid treating during hot sunny weather, do so later in the day to reduce the risk of burning.
• If it looks like rain, delay until the weather is clear since any rain will wash away the new application. If it has recently rained, wait till greenery is dry before applying to prevent the mix being diluted with water.
• When trying a new recipe, test on just a couple leaves first (apply then watch how the test leaves react after two or three days, if no signs of damage proceed with spraying the whole plant).

Here is the meat of an NSA slideshow to display how PRISM works. Through a top-secret program authorized by federal judges working under the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA), the U.S. intelligence community can gain access to the servers of nine Internet companies for a wide range of digital data. Documents describing the previously undisclosed program, obtained by The Washington Post, show the breadth of U.S. electronic surveillance capabilities in the wake of a widely publicized controversy over warrantless wiretapping of U.S. domestic telephone communications in 2005. These slides, annotated by The Washington Post, represent a selection from the overall document, and certain portions are redacted.
Before you read this, notice that Facebook is on this list as a PRISM  ‘member’. Yesterday Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg said “Facebook is not and has never been part of any program to give the US or any other government direct access to our servers. We have never received a blanket request or court order from any government agency asking for information or metadata in bulk, like the one Verizon reportedly received. And if we did, we would fight it aggressively. We hadn’t even heard of Prism before yesterday.” Maybe he should tell the NSA that

The National Security Agency and the FBI are tapping directly into the central servers of nine leading U.S. Internet companies, extracting audio and video chats, photographs, e-mails, documents, and connection logs that enable analysts to track foreign targets, according to a top-secret document obtained by The Washington Post.

The program, code-named PRISM, has not been made public until now. It may be the first of its kind. The NSA prides itself on stealing secrets and breaking codes, and it is accustomed to corporate partnerships that help it divert data traffic or sidestep barriers. But there has never been a Google or Facebook before, and it is unlikely that there are richer troves of valuable intelligence than the ones in Silicon Valley.

Hydroponics

Researchers discovered in the 18th century that plants absorb essential mineral nutrients as inorganic ions in water. In natural conditions, soil acts as a mineral nutrient reservoir but the soil itself is not essential to plant growth. When the mineral nutrients in the soil dissolve in water, plant roots are able to absorb them. When the required mineral nutrients are introduced into a plant’s water supply artificially, soil is no longer required for the plant to thrive. Almost any terrestrial plant will grow with hydroponics. Hydroponics is also a standard technique in biology research and teaching.

 

List of Acronyms:

Term                                                                                        Acronym

Controlled Environment Agriculture                                      CEA

Electro-conductivity                                                               EC

High Pressure Sodium                                                            HPS

Metal Halide                                                                           MH

Light Emitting Diode                                                             LED

National Aeronautics and Space Administration                   NASA

Photosynthetically Active Radiation                                      PAR

Power of Hydrogen                                                                pH

Polypropylene                                                                         PP

Electrostatic-dissipative                                                          ESD

Polystyrene                                                                             PS

Polyethylene                                                                           PE

High-Density                                                                          HDPE

Low-Density                                                                           LDPE

Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density                                      PPFD

Transistor-Transistor-Logic                                                     TTL

Glossary of Terms:

Term                                        Class                                        Feature

Aeroponics                              Plant growth method  Allows media-less culture

ex. Aeroponics is a plant culture technique whereby plants are fed by having a nutrient solution sprayed onto their bare roots.

Bio-reactor                              Bio-mechanical device            Turns waste into plant food

ex. A bio-reactor can turn plant and human waste into plant food.

Electro-conductivity               Measurement criteria               Shows nutrient concentration

ex. The electro-conductivity of pure water is nearly zero, but it rises as fertilizers or other ionic compounds are added into solution.

Flywheel                                 Mechanical device                  Stores electricity

ex. A flywheel can be used to store electrical energy supplied by solar arrays as kinetic energy in a magnetic mass spinning inside a conductive case.

Hydroponics                           Plant growth method              Maximizes oxygen supply

ex. Hydroponics is a method of growing plants in soil-less media or directly in nutrient solution.

Photosynthetically

Active Radiation                Energy form                            Facilitates photosynthesis

ex. Photosynthetically Active Radiation is the radiant energy required by plants to photosynthesize.

Transpiration                           Plant function                         Moves water

ex. Transpiration is the process where plants take up water and then give it off as a vapour, it is comparable to mammals’ perspiration.

Xerohyte(ic)                            Plant/Biome type                    Drought tolerant or dry

ex. Xerophytic plants like Cacti can thrive in arid, desert like habitats.

Chapter #1: Hydroponics Introduction!

Hydroponics is the water-based growth of plants, usually directly in water or in soil-less mix, although there are many variations. Because of the ability to have control over water and nutrient solution management as well as increasing oxygen levels in the root zone, crop productivity can be increased significantly when compared to regular outdoor growing methods.

Many people immediately picture some high-tech apparatus used only by NASA Engineers or University students when they hear the word Hydroponics, but the truth is that Hydroponics culture methods have been successfully used to grow ornamental and edible crops for millennia. One of the first documented Hydroponic gardens was the famed Hanging Gardens of Babylon in Iraq @  http://pharos.bu.edu/Egypt/Wonders/gardens.html or http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/. Mother Nature has also been busy using Hydroponics anywhere that plants grow in sand, gravel, etc..

Hydroponics methods are now widely employed around the world, especially in Temperate regions where greenhouses can be operated year round without the need for supplemental heating. Many different crops are grown including Strawberries, Cucumbers, Lettuce, Tomatoes and Orchids. Virtually any plant can be grown Hydroponically as long as the specific water and nutrient consumption rates of that plant are taken into account.

There are a myriad of different techniques used, with the Wick, Nutrient Film Technique(NFT), Floating Raft, Drip, and Ebb & Flow methods being the most prevalent. Aeroponics is a new twist that is basically a method of feeding the plants by misting the roots with nutrient solution.

The Wick method consists of having pots or a tray full of media with plants in it above a reservoir of fertilizer solution with wicks transferring the solution to the plants through capillary action. This is the most basic system, but works well.

The NFT system works by having troughs or pipes which the plants are kept in with a steady stream of nutrient solution pumped through. The solution level is kept at a thin film to maximize the oxygen available to the plants roots.

The Floating Raft technique consists of growing the plants on floating Styrofoam rafts on an aerated nutrient solution. This system is best suited to growing lettuce and other small leafy plants that don’t require much support.

An excellent link for the Floating Raft method Is http://www.cals.cornell.edu/dept/flori/lettuce/index.html that is the CEA hydroponics site at Cornell University.

The Drip method works be having the plants in pots or trays and the solution is supplied by pipes and dripped onto the roots.

The Ebb & Flow system works by having the plants kept in a raised tray into which the nutrient solution is pumped and then drained. Some people have been known to use “wading pools” as a cheap Hydroponics tray to grow their plants in.

The management of the nutrient solution is of great importance when growing plants Hydroponically. Most growers mix there nutrient solution from commercial grade powdered mixes or from raw chemicals and top up the solution until imbalances occur. These imbalances occur because there are certain nutrients present in most water supplies which can build up to toxic levels in the solution after time due to the fact that the plants don’t use them such as Sodium and Chlorine. Some facilities use Re-circulating solutions to minimize waste fertilizer being dumped and they are usually forced to use pure, filtered water to avoid the toxic build-up problem.

The pH value of the solution, which is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity, must also be monitored to keep the plants growing at optimum levels. The pH can be adjusted by adding acids or bases as required.

There is a vast array of different growing substrates available today, with Perlite, Vermiculite, Peat Moss, Coconut Husks(Coir), Sand, Gravel, polyurethane blocks and Rockwool being some of the most popular. Recently, Perlite has become the favourite of many commercial and hobby growers, with Rockwool also being popular, but it requires pH adjustments due to its Alkalinity. I hope this chapter has given you a good basic introduction to Hydroponics and you should visit the list of links to Hydroponics related sites at http://www.Suite101.com for more information. Goto Best hydroponics http://www.ncf.carleton.ca/~de440/ for more info..

Chapter #2: Salinity!

One major hurdle facing growers who wish to re-circulate their hydroponic nutrient solution in order to reduce waste is the build-up of toxic salts over time. This problem has also caused the destruction of large amounts of surface soils in arid and semi-arid countries around the world.

The most common problem salts in water supplies are; chlorides and sulfates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium (Bray, 1990). These salts accumulate because insufficient rain falls to purge them from the soil. They can be removed through leaching or conversion with Gypsum and/or Sulfur and Sulphuric acid, and evaporation control (Bray, 1990). Reverse-osmosis water filtration units can also be used for nutrient top-up. Alternatives include precipitation and removal with activated charcoal.

Canadian researchers at the University of Toronto have made a breakthrough discovery that could help to reclaim vast amounts of farmland. They have apparently successfully transformed normal plants into plants that will accumulate a much larger Sodium load than usual. Go to http://www.cbcnews.cbc.ca/cgi-bin/templates/view.cgi?/news/1999/08/19/farmsoil990819 for more information.

References: Brady, Nyle C.. The Nature and Properties of Soils. New York, New York. Macmillan Publishing Company: 1990.

Chapter #3: Computer Automation!

This chapter focuses on various methods and technologies involved with Hydroponics system automation.

The usual variables which are controlled through automation are light and watering cycles, Electro-Conductivity (EC) which relates to nutrient concentration in solution, pH (acidity/alkalinity which will be discussed in detail in a future article) of the solution, and atmospheric temperature and humidity.

The control of light and watering cycles is easily achieved through the use of timers that can be bought at the local hardware store. Relays can be used where switching high currents is required for lots of lights. For automation freaks, computer systems are available from http://www.x10.com and http://www.honeywell.com which can be used to control lights, pumps, etc..

The EC of the solution is best monitored using an electronic meter which measures the conductivity of the solution which rises according to concentration of ions and the units are micro-Siemens per centimeter (uS/cm). These can be purchased from many companies like http://www.hannainst.com . These meters cannot actually measure the nutrient parts per million (ppm) because of the varying solubility to conductivity ratios of different substances, but some are calibrated to convert from EC to ppm according to the assumption that ~2uS/cm=1ppm. Computer automation for EC control can be achieved using simple software to control a probe wired through an analogue to digital converter (A/D) and into a computer or micro-controller which can then turn on a pump to add more nutrients when required. A/D chips can be bought for ~$2 from http://www.jameco.com or http://www.dalsemi.com or http://www.microchip.com .

The pH of the solution can also be monitored using electronic devices, but it has been our experience that it is more efficient to use pH indicating kits which contain Bromthymol Blue or other substances which react to turn certain colours for different pH values. These kits can be purchased in pet/aquarium/superstores. The electronic pH meters work OK, but the glass electrodes corrode naturally as they work, and have to be replaced. Proper media should be selected to reduce the possibility of pH fluctuations. This is one reason why many other growers choose to use Perlite (Pearlite) and other substances rather than Rockwool due to the fact that Perlite is pH neutral, whereas Rockwool is alkaline in nature and usually requires acid treatment.

Temperature and humidity are easily controlled using thermostats and de-humidistats connected to exhaust fans.

There are very complex computer modelling software packages being developed which will be able to predict the amounts of nutrients required by crops in re-circulating systems according to environmental conditions, but these programs are in their infancy, one prototype can be found at http://res.agr.ca/harrow/software/software.htm .

Chapter #4: Fertilize Me Baby!

Plants grown Hydroponically must have all of their required nutrients supplied in the fertilizer nutrient solution rather than obtaining them from the soil like traditional crops in the field. This allows for greater control of the growing environment, but can also lead to deficiencies if all the required elements are not in the solution.

Many studies have been done by plant physiologists over the years to determine the concentrations of nutrients that plants require and a recognised authority in this field is Dennis R. Hoagland who developed the “Hoagland’s solution” which is a benchmark for optimal plant growth and is used all over the world.

The essential micro- and macro-nutrients which all plants require and their tissue concentrations for optimum growth are:

Macro-nutrients(%):

Sulfur 30

Phosphorus 60

Magnesium 80

Calcium 125

Potassium 250

Nitrogen 1000

Oxygen 30000

Carbon 40000

Hydrogen 60000

Micro-nutrients(ppm):

Molybdenum 0.001

Copper 0.10

Zinc 0.30

Manganese 1.0

Iron 2.0

Boron 2.0

Chlorine 3.0

(Taiz & Zeiger, 1991)

Certain plants such as rice also require Silicon for proper growth.

One problem with growing plants in Hydroponics nutrient solutions is Iron deficiency that can occur due to the Iron precipitating (coming out of solution as a solid) into insoluble Iron Hydroxide. Modern fertilizers use chelating agents such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) which keep the iron and other trace elements in solution. Precipitation of other substances such as Calcium Phosphate can occur if concentrated nutrient solutions are prepared, so solutions are best prepared separately prior to dilution and use, usually in 2-part “A” & “B” solutions.

Most commercial Hydroponics growing operations use premixed fertilizers to reduce the chances of nutrient deficiencies occurring caused by human error and to reduce the labour involved in ordering and preparing nutrient solutions from scratch. Various recipes used for lettuce, tomatoes, and cucumbers can be found at : http://www.cals.cornell.edu/dept/flori/lettuce/stock.html

http://www.usu.edu/~cpl/nutrwht.html

http://res.agr.ca/harrow/bk2/cuke1a.htm

http://res.agr.ca/harrow/bk/tomch9.htm

http://www.ag.arizona.edu/hydroponictomatoes/nutritio.htm

http://members.tripod.com/Client_Profile/l_form.htm

http://www.biotron.slu.se/bio3375.htm

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/scripts/htmlgen.exe?DOCUMENT_VH030

http://www.np.edu.sg/~dept-bio/sssc/nutr.html

http://www.hbci.com/~wenonah/hydro/nitragen.htm

http://www.atlantic.net/~elifritz/hydroponics.htm

http://nfrec-sv.ifas.ufl.edu/nutrient_solution.htm

Another good source for recipes is the Journal of Plant Nutrition, esp. Vol. #21. Issue #10 which compares 12 different solutions.

Also, check out

http://www.hydromall.com/info/eleccon.html

for values.

The units of measuring fertilizer solution concentration are Siemens and Mhos where 2 microSiemen(uS)=2 micromho(umho)=~1 ppm(approximation). Siemens and Mhos are units of Electrical Conductivity (EC) as described in an earlier article and are reciprocals of resistance (Ohms) as the EC of solutions increases linearly with nutrient concentration. Typical nutrient concentrations are from 1000-3000 uS/cm (~500-1500 ppm) depending on size, type of, and growth rate of the plants.

You can prepare your own calibration solution by calculating using the equation C=Q/V where C=concentration desired, Q=quantity of solute, and V=volume where 1g/L=1000ppm.

References: Taiz & Zeiger. Plant Physiology. Redwood City, California. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company: 1991.

Chapter #5: Lighten Up!

Plants have evolved over many eons through natural selection (except maybe in Kansas) to use the energy available to them in Sunlight as efficiently as possible. This part of the spectrum which plants use is defined as Photosynthetically Active Radiation(PAR). PAR light output is usually expressed in units of micro-moles(umol) or micro-Einsteins(uE)of quanta per Watt(W) and measured in umol or uE per square metre per second ((umol*m-2)*s-1 ((umol/m2)/s) or (uE*m-2)*s-1 ((uE/m2)/s)) of Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density(PPFD).

Human eyes have developed to utilize different wavelengths for vision as seen in the (rough) graph which shows the relationship between the daylight spectrum that reaches the Earth and the wavelengths used by plants and humans. As you can see, plants only use certain wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum, peaking in the blue and red regions, while the human eye can best see light in the yellow area, with the “Lumen” being used to relate the amount of light put out by bulbs that the human eye can see.

Supplemental lighting is required in greenhouses and grow-rooms when insufficient daylight is available. The artificial light source of choice must have an output that will match, as closely as possible, the spectrum plants required for photosynthesis. While the amount of Lumens put out by bulbs can give a rough estimate of which bulb to use, PAR ratings are more useful when choosing lights for plants and conversion factors are available to convert from Lumens to PAR ratings for most light sources. Metal Halide (MH) and High Pressure Sodium (HPS) lamps put out about 14 umol PAR per klux, White fluorescent give ~12 and Incandescent give ~20, but HPS can give up to 120-140 klumens per 1000 Watts while MH give only 80-100, Fluorescent give ~70 and Incandescent give only ~20. “Gro” bulbs put out slightly more. Compact fluorescent bulbs can put out close to ~3000 lumens @ 40 watts. Halogen bulbs can also be useful because of ease of implementation. Greenhouses and also many university Phytotrons use various types and combinations of bulbs.

When no daylight is available at all (i.e. indoors), some supplemental MH and fluorescent lighting is usually used because the HPS lamps put out a reddish spectrum which can lead to plants getting “leggy” (spindly) if some additional blue light isn’t added.

The accepted value for optimal growth of lettuce & spinach is 200-300 umol*m-2*s-1 PAR PPFD, so a 1000W HPS system putting out 140 klumens @ 14 umol*m-2*s-1/klux will give 1960 umol*m-2*s-1 which divided by 250 for good illumination & optimal growth gives 7.8 square meters or ~70 square feet maximum for each unit (Roughly), for a more accurate calculation using Illumination Engineering Society guidelines for calculations involving Room Surface Dirt Depreciation, Lamp Lumen Depreciation, etc. please download our calculator from:

http://hydroponics.hypermart.net/light.exe

The recommended level for tomatoes and cucumbers is ~100 umol*m-2*s-1 and listings for other plants can be found in the Illumination Engineering Handbook in most libraries (footcandles * 10.7 =lux and lux * 0.93=f.c.).

Check out:

http://www.animalnetwork.com/fish2/aqfm/1998/nov/features/1/default.asp

and

http://www.biocontrols.com/aero65.htm

for more info..

Chapter #6: p What ?!

As alluded to earlier, the pH of hydroponic solutions is an important factor to regulate for optimal plant growth. The term pH comes from the French “pouvoir hydrogen”, meaning the “power of hydrogen”. Pure water has a pH of 7.0 and acidic solutions have more free hydrogen atoms and a lower pH (<7) and basic or alkaline solutions have a higher pH (>7) and less free hydrogen atoms (Bailar, et. al., 1989).

In hydroponics, the pH value has a greater significance with respect to nutrient availability than in regards to cellular damage which can be inflicted by extremely acidic (pH=<4) or basic (pH=>9) nutrient solutions. This is because molecules of nitrogen, sulfur, etc. become insoluble at lower pH values and at higher pH’s, ions such as iron, copper, and phosphorus can precipitate out of solution. Therefore, proper solution pH must be maintained to ensure proper plant growth.

As mentioned in my previous article, the best way to check the solution pH is to periodically ( 1ce a day or so) check it using a cheap pH test kit. The more expensive meters work, but are unnecessary as rapid pH fluctuations should not occur, and if they do, you likely have some other problem such as supplying nitrogen as nitrate (NO3) alone, rather than applying it in combination with ammonium (NH4) which will help to eliminate quick rises in the pH (Taiz & Zeiger, 1991).

As the plants remove nutrients from the solution, the pH will naturally rise slowly and become more alkaline, which must be counteracted with acids; nitric, phosphoric and sulfuric being the most common used. In contrast, if solution acidity is a problem (which happens rarely) potassium or calcium hydroxide can be added, or lime added to the growing medium will often help and is good practice to buffer pH fluctuations.

Different plant species have been experimentally shown to grow best in different pH ranges, with acid loving plants such as Azaleas, Rhododendron and Cranberries growing best in the pH 4-5 range. Plants such as Soybeans, Tomatoes, Cowpeas, Cucumbers, etc. prefer to be grown in solutions with an optimum pH of 6.0 and other plants such as Lettuce, Cabbage, Carrots, etc. prefer a slightly higher pH of 5.5-8 (Brady, 1990). As a general rule, a pH of 5.7-6.0 is best for most food crops.

Check out

http://www.hydromall.com/info/eleccon.html

for data.

p.s. According to differential solubilities, most plant nutrient ions are most readily available in solution from ~pH 5.5-8 depending. They can precipitate out of solution or become bound outside of this range causing the TDS to drop. Fertilizers are also usually acidic and will lower the pH when added along with raising the TDS. When plants selectively deplete ions from the solution lowering the TDS, the pH will usually rise accordingly.

References:

Bailar, et. al.. Chemistry. Orlando, Florida. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.: 1989.

Brady, Nyle C.. The Nature and Properties of Soils. New York, New York. Macmillan Publishing Company: 1990.

Taiz & Zeiger. Plant Physiology. Redwood City, California. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company: 1991.

Chapter #7: CO2!

This chapter is about carbon dioxide (CO2) fertilization. Plants require CO2 to use in the photosynthetic cycle where it and water vapour chemically combine producing carbohydrates (sugars) for energy, and releasing Oxygen and excess water vapour.

CO2 becomes a limiting factor for growth when sufficient light, water and fertilizer levels are available as the CO2 is depleted by the plants and must be replaced by venting or supplementation. The atmospheric concentration of CO2 is ~0.035% (~350 parts per million (ppm)), and plants have been shown to have up to a 200% increase in growth at 700 ppm (Taiz & Zeiger, 1991). The accepted value for maximum growth of most crop plants is 1500 ppm CO2, which is far below the 2 percent (20 000 ppm) level which is suitable for human consumption. Long exposure to 5 percent CO2 (50 000 ppm) causes dizziness and other symptoms.

CO2 can be supplied by various means, including injection from compressed tanks of liquid gas, production via combustion, fermentation, chemical reaction and catalytic combination. Tanks of compressed gas and combustion are the two most common methods for CO2 fertilization, with combustion being mainly used in outdoor greenhouses where excess heat can be used. Fuel supplies for combustion include propane and methane. The fermentation method using brewer’s yeast can be applied to small grow-rooms, but is messy and smelly, but cheap and effective. The chemical reaction of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) and acid can also be used. There are new catalytic converters that combine propane with oxygen to produce CO2 and water vapour without a flame. These are currently being marketed as mosquito repellents.

The control of the levels of CO2 available for assimilation in the growing area can be a problem. The amount of fuel required to burn to achieve a desired CO2 level is predictable using molecular weight calculations, but most commercial production units are calibrated and come with timing sheets for the production rates. When using fermentation, it is nearly impossible to predict the exact amount that will be produced and CO2 monitors are recommended, but are currently quite expensive. It is easiest to use compressed tanks of the gas that can be used with flow-meters or gages that are calibrated accordingly, usually in cubic feet per hour (CFH) which can give you a rough estimate of the levels without purchasing a monitor, but hopefully the prices of monitors will drop because they are the most effective method of regulation. When using compressed gas, it is best to replenish the CO2 after venting when necessary, or approximately every 3 hours if the air has not been removed.

People have also been known to use CO2 generated by their pets or livestock for their plants.

There is currently anecdotal speculation that addition of Lecithin (Soy?) to the root zone can facilitate CO2 uptake by the roots and studies are ongoing.

There is a CO2 calculator program that you can download at http://hydroponics.hypermart.net/CO2.exe that will calculate the dosage required according to room volume.

References: Taiz & Zeiger. Plant Physiology. Redwood City, California. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company: 1991.

Chapter #8: SupercalifragilisticexpiAeroponics!

This chapter will give you a description of how to build your own cheap and very effective aeroponic “cloning” chamber to use for quick rooting of cuttings. We came up with this design a few years ago and it is incredibly simple and efficient and can be completed with a few parts from your local hardware/pet/Borg store. We will not add a picture (because we won’t have our digital camera until Christmas), so you will have to use your imagination.

The parts you will need are:

-Rubbermaid™ or other suitable plastic or plastic-lined wood box or aquarium

-water pump (~>200GPH), preferably magnet driven & fish-safe (those are usually corrosion proof and made to run continuously)

-some plastic sheet (preferably white)

-Exacto™ knife

-misting, nebulizing, vaporizing (vapourizing), or atomizing head(s) from the lawn-sprinkler/garden department of the store (try to get them in full circle 360 degree coverage) you could also order on-line @:

http://www.truefog.com/catalog.html

http://www.kesmist.com/homepage.htm

http://www.raindrip.com

or you can use an ultrasonic fogger mister when they are readily available

-some poly pipe & fittings

Firstly take the lid of the container & cut some dime-sized holes in it, approximately 3-6 inches apart. Then attach your misting nozzle to the pump on a 5-10 inch riser (piece of poly pipe) and place it in the bottom of the container and add enough water to cover the pump + a few inches extra so it doesn’t run dry and test the nozzle to see what kind of spray pattern you get. There is a myriad of misting nozzles available around the world, so the toughest part of this endeavour will be to fit the nozzle(s) to your pump so you get a good mist going in the container. You may have to use a couple of heads & couplings & T’s & nipples, but everything will be available in the plumbing section of the store. Today I went to a local hardware store (which shall remain nameless) and purchased a head for 98 cents and it worked well enough when attached to my 250 GPH pump to fill my box(10 gallon) with mist, I was lucky.

When you get the pump & misting head(s) set up, you are done. Add water and maybe 1/5th of a multivitamin (dissolve the vitamin in a jar of water first & strain it into the box so you won’t clog the mister head with chunks), put the lid on with the piece of white plastic on top which now has slits cut in it to poke the cuttings in through the holes, insert your cuttings, put the pump on a timer to be on whenever light is supplied or in intervals & you’re off. Your cuttings should root in 1-3 weeks, depending on the species. This technique won’t work for all plants, but you can test a few from around the house & garden, & some will love it.

Chapter #9: Helllooooooo Poly!

Polystyrene (PS), High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE), Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE), PolyPropylene (PP), Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), Mylar, Nylon (PA), etc., etc.. These are a few of the labels you will find around the house on polymer food containers. When it comes to building a hydroponics system using polymer containers, you should use some of these same products. Rubbermaid™ for example have assured us that their products are safe to use for hydroponics systems. If you are building a large tray system to be lined with poly. sheeting, you should not use something like mildew resistant construction vapour-barrier as it may be phytotoxic (harmful to plants) due to being impregnated with pesticides. Instead, you should contact local plastic wholesalers or farm supply companies and tell them what you want. You can also check out AT Plastics (who manufacture agricultural food and hydroponics-safe polymers) at http://www.atplastics.com or other plastics manufacturers and find a local distributor in your area.

There have been a few studies done lately which warn of plasticizers that can be released from certain poly. products into foods, such as DEHA in plastic wraps. One link for information concerning this is http://www.plasticsinfo.org/food/index.html and certain scientists have stated that soft plastics, like the Poly-Vinyl Chloride (PVC) should be avoided as they may release additives into the surroundings.

There have been rumours that recycled plastics may contain high levels of Lead &/or other toxins.

It has also been stated that “…components that come in contact with the nutrient solution, as many as possible should be made of plastic because metal can release potentially toxic levels of certain micro-nutrients such as zinc and copper in the solution. Because of the widespread use of plastics, take care to select materials that are not phyto-toxicity. As a general recommendation, PVC and low- and high-density polyethylene or polypropylene are acceptable, but plasticized PVC used in the manufacture of flexible hose, or butyl rubber sheet lining, used for waterproofing reservoirs, should not be used in NFT as they may be phyto-toxic. Plastics are more likely to cause phyto-toxicity when they are new. Plastic surfaces quickly lose their potential phyto-toxicity when exposed to nutrient solution. Therefore, before planting a crop, flush out the new hydroponic installation entirely for 1 day with a dilute nutrient solution that is discarded.” by Dr. A. P. Papadopoulos “Growing greenhouse tomatoes in soil and in soilless media” http://res.agr.ca/harrow/bk2/cuke-toc.htm

I have contacted industry experts and we have come to the conclusion that rigid poly. wading pools which can be purchased very cheaply make ideal hydroponics flow trays.

A couple of other interesting links can be found at http://www.plasticsinfo.org/food/packaging.html and http://www.cfia-acia.agr.ca/reference/q1-c.html#C .

Chapter #10: P.B.!

The Perlite Bed Theory:

Perlite (a.k.a. Pearlite) Beds and their variations have to be some of the most versatile and simplistic yet productive hydroponics systems ever conceived. Perlite Beds can be adapted to grow plants in many configurations including ebb-&-flo, NFT, flood-&-drain, dripper-matrix, soaker-hose, pipe-action, etc..

Complete Perlite Bed units can be easily designed and built to fit any space. A large poly. tray or poly. lined wooden tray arrangement with a thru-hull fitting to a poly. or other reservoir beneath forms the basis for each unit’s functionality. The nutrient solution is pumped up to the plants on top and flows back into the reservoir where it is controlled & monitored.

For larger spaces, many units can be used in unison. Each unit then serves as a modulus creating a modular expansion capability.

Perlite used alone or in combination along with other amendments such as Vermiculite, Rockwool, Dolomitic Limestone, Peat Moss, etc. is the medium used to form the substrate to support the plants roots. Combinations can be mixed to allow creation of “Zones” suitable for optimized plant growth. Perlite is cheap and easily obtained at any farm-supply or gardening nursery store for ~$10-20/110L. The media can also be bagged.

Fish-pumps and other types can be used. Magnetic-driven seem to be the most efficient and trustworthy available.

The beds can be built on top of tables, sawhorses, or other support apparatus. Minimal pH adjustment should be required with a Perlite Bed and evapo-transpiration rates can be controlled using modified substrate recipes and/or addition of landscape fabric or poly. sheeting or other mulches to the medium’s surface.

The bed(s) should be rinsed regularly with clean water to avoid nutrient level fluctuations.

Chapter #11: Electronic Ultrasonic Aeroponic Fogarific Nutrient Delivery

There is a revolutionary new product available on the market that uses electronic vibrators to transform ordinary liquid water into sub-micro evaporative fog mist droplets that can be used to feed and humidify plants.

These units consist of electronic transducers that are pieces of crystals that vibrate according to the degree of electrical current supplied and can be driven to such a rate that they emit ultrasonic “beams”. If they are squeezed or vibrated, they can also release electrical current.

The micronic size of the atomized droplets allows for deep penetration of growing chambers and optimal availability to the roots. The “fog” created is equivalent to the white, puffy clouds floating in the sky. The endothermic evaporative reaction producing the fog can cause the temperature to drop, but subsequent exothermic condensation will make it rise so the temperature must be monitored and a heater may be necessary.

Nutrients and amendments can be added to the solution as required for delivery to the plants’ roots. Possibilities include using the units for root or foliar treatment combinations.

Pulsing timed oscillating excitation is recommended to extend the unit’s useful life as prolonged vibration may cause degredation.

There are many sources for purchasing the technology, we will be posting the most economically efficient manufacturers soon in the list of Hydroponics links.

Chapter #12: Spigots!

Spigots can be very useful when designing a Hydroponics or Aeroponics system as they allow for ease of nutrient solution monitoring and cyclic renewal.

On the other hand, they can be a cause for concern when they leak. Care should be taken when shopping for suitable spigots to allow for quality assurance. Nothing can be more annoying than a leaky spigot.

Some people frown upon spigot-usage and prefer to practice spigot elimination in the quest for dryness and leak-proofedness. Spigot avoidance can be achieved through the use of a siphon-hose, pumps, dumping, overflow utilization, etc.. However, certain cases require spigot usage and we recommend you rely upon heavy-duty spigots bought from hardware, plastic, wine, or industrial supply stores.

Both metal and polymer spigots are available, with stainless-steel and non-recycled food-safe plastics being the most desirable construction materials to allow for preventative solution contamination elimination.

Teflon©™® tape can come in very handy when trying to prevent leakage occurrence, as can food-safe silicone products.

Plastic filters can be used when the spigot is to be placed in a tray of loose media to prevent losses.

Spigots can be attained that have different modes of operation and features. Some have a pressure-operated lever system to open, while others have a mechanized valve that must be opened and closed by turning the knob on the shaft. Yet others have push-button opening.

An interesting couple of links are located @:

http://www.securefuture.com/water2.html

http://www.polyflow.com.au/

Chapter #13: Oxygen!

One of the main benefits of growing plants using hydroponic and aeroponic techniques is the maximization of oxygen in the root zone. This abundance of rhizobial (root zone) oxygen allows for optimized root cell respiration and maximized plant growth.

Conversely, in compacted soils or stagnant pooled nutrient solutions, oxygen levels can be depleted to a point where cellular damage occurs in the roots which subsequently leads to shoot growth retardation. This depletion is caused both by the plants themselves, as well as naturally occurring bacteria using the available oxygen faster than it can be replenished through diffusion from the atmosphere above the soil or substrate surface.

Low-oxygen (anaerobic) soils also allow for the growth of detrimental bacteria which can deplete mineral nutrients such as nitrogen an sulfur, which can ultimately lead to deficiencies and further extend crop losses.

Oxygen concentration maximization is the basis for the Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) which uses a thin film of nutrient solution to feed the plants and the nutrient film must be thin enough to allow for easy oxygenation. The use of perlite (pearlite) and other substrates also allow for increased oxygenation, but this gain in production can many times be counteracted by practices such as wrapping blocks of media in plastic liner, or placing plastic “mulch” over the substrate in order to reduce evapo- transpiration. Oxygen levels can be increased in the nutrient solution be using aeration devices like “air-stones” and pumps commonly used in fish tanks.

Water and oxygen management is a discrete science with a balance being achievable between crop production and water usage. Where water consumption is not an issue, oxygenation should be increased through the use of porous, aerating substrates. When evapo-transpiration reduction is necessary, plastic mulch may be used more efficiently by cutting holes in the material around plant stems to allow oxygen to feed the roots, and transpiration-reducing wax emulsions may also be applied to the plants’ leaves and stems in moderation.

It has been scientifically proven that oxygen reduction in the shoot zone can actually increase dry mass production, but due to associated root zone depletion in normal practice, this is not a viable practice.

Chapter #14: Nutrient Cycling!

Some “people” practice “open-ended” cycling routine agendas while others are constantly striving to improve their “closed” or “batch” culture schemes.

In a perfect world a closed system could function indefinitely. You would apply nutrients, light, CO2, & water to the system and get plants out without any waste being produced. In reality, the system will likely develop an imbalance and require that corrective measures be applied. Where water conservation and pollution reduction are necessary &/or possible, & where secondary ion depletion can be imposed on nutrient effluent, consumption can be facilitated in an environmentally symbiotic fashion.

Depending on circumstances allowances, nutrient solutions may be continuously utilized by re-circulating the same batch indefinitely on crop plants until refreshing is necessary when the old batch is optimally “filtered” through ornamental or other crops to minimize secondary environmental impact, or fresh mixtures of the solution are applied to the plants during subsequent fertilizer application with any effluent being used as described above.

Reverse osmosis filters and other types of water purification systems allow for emergency or routine water management control. This control can vastly elongate nutrient replenishment deferral times and reduce water requirements.

Tissue and fertilizer solution sampling are commonly used to perfect nutrient application recipës.

Certain regimes have been applied successfully where nutrients are applied in a one-way-street fashion where all moisture applied is to be processed by the plants without allowing for re-circulaition or expulsion, but these routines can be difficult to manage as evapo-transpiration rates are often difficult to foresee or predict in unison with nutrient level maintenance. Nutrient deficiencies &/or toxicity symptoms are risks which can be managed.

Chapter #15: Bio-Filters for Fish-Pee!

Fishes excrete a higher concentration in parts-per-million (ppm (mg/L H2O)) of waste in the form of the Ammonium (NH4+) ion in solution in equilibrium with water than mammals because of the fact that their hypertonic tissues can readily receive water when required by diffusion (osmosis) from the surrounding liquid body.

In ponds, aquaria, and other biospheres which can loosely be considered isolated “batch” or “closed” culture systems, this can result in difficulties arising because ammonia is toxic to fish in high enough concentrations and must therefore be removed from the solution accordingly.

Mammals and other animals, with their limited water store & resources, utilize chemical reactions in their bodies which convert ammonia to less toxic urea which can be loaded to higher levels.

Activated carbon filters have been used for many generations when unwanted ion reduction has been required. Recently other types of filters such as “Reverse Osmosis” *(“R.O.”) and others have been employed.

Mother Nature has developed a system over many millennia of performing mineral cycling which allows for re-use of ions through chemical manipulation. The “Nitrogen Cycle” involves nitrogen being cyclically exchanged between animals, plants, water, the soil, and the atmosphere.

Plants can readily absorb and use Nitrogen in the form of Ammonium or Nitrate ions, and they can convert Urea into Ammonium for use to build proteins, etc..

In soil and regions where moisture levels allow, the process of breaking down toxic compounds like ammonia is achieved through oxidation by bacteria into usable substances. This process is known as “Nitrification” and is performed by the chemoautotrophic bacterium Nitrosomonas which breaks down Ammonia (NH3) to Nitrite (NO2-) (which is highly toxic to plants) and Nitrobacter which transforms Nitrite to Nitrate (NO3-) which plants can use.

“Bio-filters” are apparatuses which attempt to mimic the outdoors by creating a haven for reproduction of nitrifying bacteria. They usually consist of a supporting form, such as a large Rubbermade® or other container with gravel or sand or porous poly. or other material(s) inside in mesh bags, over which the system solution is pumped, allowing for maximum air penetration and moisture distribution. When used in conjunction with plants, toxin and nutrient levels can be reduced and managed as desired.

Chapter #16: Silicon!

Silicon has a plethora of uses in the known Universe including everything from being used in flexible, heat-resistant adhesives and sealants to forming the substrate for today’s “high-speed” computer processors.

Certain plant species such as rice also require silicon for proper growth, maturation, and reproduction.

There has been recent speculation and apparent experimental justification resulting in some “authorities” concluding that silicon is also a beneficial and in many cases essential element for optimal crop, ornamental and other plants’ physiological metabolistic cycles.

In the natural environment Silicon is present abundantly in many classifications of soils such as Silicate minerals including the tetrahedral ionic crystalline sheets of clays including Vermiculite, Kaolonite, Talc, etc.. The Silicon stored in these substances is released upon weatherisation or breakdown of the compounds and made available for plants in the vicinity.

Organisms classified as “Diatoms” which are microscopic life-forms also accumulate Silicon in their cellular wall structures. These beasts manifest their existence in many aquatic environments around the world causing the accumulation of Silicon in large quantities when they die and build up on the water bodies’ floors. “Diatomacious Earth” is sold in many regions and consists of the mined lifeless skeletons of these diatoms which serves to act as an insecticide because of the penetrating nature of the minuscule particles which can block insects’ air passages, resulting in death.

In Hydroponic cultures, Silicon may be depleted when not supplied by external means and certain scientists have performed experiments which show that certain plants grow more vigorously when Silicon is supplied in supplemental form such as Potassium Silicate. Diatomaceous Earth and Vermiculite may also be used as organic natural sources of the mineral.

Chapter #17: Fungus Gnats!

Fungus Gnats (pronounced “Phungus Nats”) (Mycetophila spp.) are disgusting, destructive insects which feed upon wet plant matter and fungal material causing huge amounts of damage to hydroponic and conventional crop plants world-wide on a daily basis.

These “bugs” are recognizable by their “fruit-fly”-like appearance: i.e. they are very small black flies which buzz and flitter around the soil/substrate/food source surface in a very annoying fashion, appearing harmless to the naked eye.

They proliferate in moist areas where food is plentiful, such as hydroponics gardens which have an abundance of plant material and fungi available for them to munch on.

I have experienced infestations when growing hydroponic garlic plants. The gnats initially appear to feed on dead plant matter and microscopic fungi, but subsequent actual living plant damage is evident, perhaps when they run out of fungal material and dead plant matter to ingest.

Remedies include accepting the little monsters as co-habitant existents (this is the method preferred by vegan wussies) or decimation by biological or chemical means. Organic Pyrethrum insecticides have been used with great success, as have been Nematodal & Spider-mital beneficial predatorily destruction techniques.

I will be adding a labelled diagram when I get my “new” computer in a couple of weeks as my old 486 is getting tired, listless, and cumbersome.

Chapter #18: Spider-Mites!

Spider-Mites (Tetranychus spp.) are parasitic pests which are arachnids and members of the Order Acarina. They occur naturally in nature throughout North America and in other regions around the world.

In cold winters, most will die off, but some eggs will survive and hatch in the Spring to renew the outdoor colonies. Others will be lucky enough to migrate into houses, barns, greenhouses and other buildings to continue growing and breeding.

Outdoors, Spider-Mites are not usually associated with large amounts of crop damage because of natural predation which controls the population. Indoors without the presence of predators, where they are able to get access to virtually unlimited food sources such as in greenhouses full of tomatoes, beans, or other plants, they can breed and form populations which can virtually obliterate thousands of dollars worth of plants. They do this by feeding on the plants using their sharp, piercing mouth parts to get access to the nutrient-rich “sap” inside leaves and stems. The damage they inflict weakens the plants to the point where they become susceptible to diseases such as viruses and bacteria.

Spider-Mites are very small, but can be recognized with the naked eye as tiny white-gray dots on the underside of leaves which appear in the presence of silky webs which harbour hundreds of eggs. Under magnification, they look like tiny, little spiders. “Two-Spotted” Spider-Mites (Tetranychus urticae) are very common and more hardy than some other varieties making them worthy adversaries. They can be differentiated from other species by the obvious black spots present on them.

Control of Spider-Mites can be arranged though the use of “organic” concoctions made up of Tobasco©® sauce, alcohol, tobacco, soaps, garlic, etc., but we have found that it is more practical and efficient to decimate the mite population using organic Pyrethrum(in/oid) sprays or insecticidal soaps as this allows for quick plant regeneration without the possibility of toxic shock occurring due to the build-up of control agents in the plants’ tissues and surrounding soil. Another option is to import stealth assassin squads of predators including P. persimilis, A. fallacis, Feltiella, and Neoseilus californicus, but again, this option is not as fast-acting as the Pyrethrum spray. Pyrethrum sprays are supposed to be quite safe and non-toxic to humans, and he are reported to degrade quickly, but can also be rinsed off if desired.

Chapter #19: Whiteflies!

The greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporiorum, Family Aleyrodidae) is a cute, fuzzy little insect which must be destroyed to prevent infestation and crop destruction!

These insects, like other greenhouse and indoor pests, exist naturally outdoors and migrate inside in colder climates to survive.

The yellowish eggs hatch into white Nymphs which attach themselves to the underside of plants’ leaves with a wax-like coating. These Nymphs are non- feeding and resemble scales.

The adults spend almost all of their time feeding on plants’ juices and hanging out underneath the leaves, making them difficult to notice and expel. A quick shaking of plants will cause the adults to scatter and become visible. While they resemble nice little white moths when magnified, they are very injurious to plants.

These creatures can be controlled as other insects, using organic pesticides or home-made concoctions of household agents, or good-old squashing techniques can be employed with great success.

Biological control agents such as the Whitefly Parasite (Encarsia formosa) and the Whitefly Predator (Delphastus pusillus) can be very effective when used appropriately in pertinent circumstances. Encarsia formosa is a tiny parasitic wasp which incubates inside the Whitefly larvae and emerges to ingest the host. The adults also kill Whiteflies for food. Delphastus pusillus is a little beetle which feed on Whitefly eggs, thus interrupting the reproductive cycle and causing population depletion.

It is our opinion that organic insecticides are usually your best bet when time is a concern, which it is in most cases when bugs are in the midst of killing your plants

Chapter #20: Cloning Clinique pt.1!

This week’s article will be a minimalist exploration of various techniques used for “cloning” or propagating “baby” cuttings obtained from a “mother” plant through vegetative reproduction.

The use of an aeroponics unit, such as one described in one of our previous articles, can make the cloning of many plants a snap or breeze, as it were, but many people prefer to use more basic methods, which can be just as effective and productive when perfected.

Many people are familiar with taking cuttings of such plants as ivy, and placing them in a cup or glass or mug or vase of water until they form roots at which time they can be transplanted to pots for growth. This practice is the basis for the mass cutting production routines practised in nurseries world-wide, except for various modifications according to circumstances.

Cuttings taken from herbaceous plants can be successfully rooted in water, moist potting soil, vermiculite, stone-wool, perlite, sand, polyurethane foam, and various other substances and combinations.

It is best to take cuttings of stems inter-nodally (between leaf junctions) and to include at least one de-leafed node to be inserted into the rhizome (beneath the surface). Large leaves should be removed if possible, leaving smaller leaves to provide preliminary photosynthetic nourishment. Large leaves can kill cuttings when they transpire excessively and dehydrate the plant to be.

Some people insist that using a sharp knife or razor to add cuts to the part of the cutting to be inserted in the soil can speed root formation, and this could be tried to see if it effective for you.

Another technique which has proven to be effective for some plants is to place the freshly taken cuttings into a sealed plastic bag which is then put into a cool fridge over night, allowing the plants to rest and form a callus layer at the cut surface to aid in stress reduction and root propagation.

Cuttings should always be kept in subdued lighting for at least 24 hours, after-which they can be put under artificial lighting or in a well-lit area.

Many people use clear glass or poly. humidity domes, aquaria, or other apparatuses to seal moisture into the cuttings’ environmental atmosphere. Others prefer to mist them with water regularly and still others use anti-transpirants (such as wax) to seal in moisture so the cuttings don’t dry out.

Exotic rooting hormones such as gels and sprays laced with vitamins and other mystical, magical secret ingredients are usually unnecessary and good old rooting powder will suffice, but to each their own. Fungicides may be required in unkempt, dingy surroundings, but cleanliness can usually prevent fungal infestations.

Chapter #21: Intro. 2 Organic Hydroponics pt.1!

People who have some sort of problem associating hydroponics with organics should stop reading this right now and go put their heads back in the sand. The word hydroponics can be loosely interpreted from Latin to mean “working-water” (not “non-organic” as some people seem to think), and since water is allowed for organic growers, hydroponic growers can of course adapt their systems to be fully, or semi-organic.

I don’t plan to rant much further, but I have run into many organic exclusionist idealist fervour-spewing radicals who refuse to categorise any hydroponics methods as possibly being organic off hand, without any consideration.

Now on to the more enjoyable technical aspects of organic hydroponics.

Organic substances are defined as those substances obtained directly from Mother Earth without chemical alteration or processing, and including those produced by plants or animals.

A completely organic hydroponics system must use only organic materials for the substrate or media in which the plants are intended to grow, and must utilise only organic fertilizers to supply the necessary nutrients for the plants to grow and flourish.

The growing media can be soil (steam or heat sterilized preferably to prevent disease or fungal infestation), vermiculite, perlite (pearlite), peat, coco-husk (coir), straw, or other organic material(s). I’m not sure whether stone-wool is classified as organic by the organic classifiers, but seeing as it is just physically treated (heated and spun) rock from the Earth, I think it should be, although I don’t use or praise it anyway, but some people have been convinced to like it (fanatically in some cases).

Organic fertilizers come from a vast array of sources including bat guano; sea-bird dung; sea-weed (“strip-mined” or “clear0cut” from the oceans); fish entrails and bones; cow, pig, sheep, chicken manure, bones, blood, and urine; and a myriad of other places.

The main problems with using organic fertilizers are nutrient completeness and control issues as well as contamination problems. Nutrient variations between batches and sources of organic nutrients make fetilizer cycling much more difficult than with conventional “chemical” solutions, causing increased runoff into the environment in some cases where ion imbalances occur. Fertilizers such as manure are also sources for possible outbreaks of E. coli bacteria when crops are not processed properly.

When using organic nutrient solutions in hydroponics it is best to discard waste effluent by using it to fertilize ornamental or outdoor crops to minimize environmental damage.

Chapter #22: Hydroponic Jalepenos!

One of the easiest and most delectable crops I ever grew was a small batch of hydroponic Jalepeno peppers grown indoors under artificial lighting.

I set up a small grow-room ~4′ x 4′ and covered the walls with clean, reflective white plastic. I erected a 3′ x 3 & 1/2′ ebb & flow tray on top of a piece of plywood supported by empty 5 gallon pails, with a 15 gallon reservoir underneath to hold the nutrient solution. Inside the reservoir was placed a small aquarium water pump with hose to feed the grow-tray through a thru-hull fitting which was purchased from the boating supply section of a local hardware store.

The lighting system I used was one 400 Watt Metal Halide standard bulb in a vertical (base-up) reflector fixture with remote mounted ballast. I didn’t bother to measure the light levels throughout the room as I presumed I would have enough light, and could always add some fluorescents if need be.

The substrate chosen in which to anchor the plants roots was pure medium-grain sized horticultural-grade Vermiculite because peppers require and flourish in moist areas.

The media was flushed with 1/2 strength fertilizer solution to “charge” it with nutrients as it had none to begin with and would have depleted the first batch in the cycle if this was not done.

Pepper sprouts which were incubated under fluorescent lights for a week were transferred to the hydroponics tray and left to grow under 16 hour light “days” and the tray was flooded once a day with solution initially and twice after 3 weeks when the plants were larger.

The pH of the solution was checked once a week using an aquarium test kit and it did not require adjustment due to the Vermiculite’s natural neutral state combined with the slight acidity of the fertilizer which kept the system’s level at the optimal value of pH ~6.

The fertilizer used was a commercial-grade powder type and it was mixed according to the directions, using ½ strength for the first week and regular full strength after that. The EC was not checked and the system was flushed with clean water every 3 weeks and replenished with fresh nutrients.

Due to the cleanliness of the room, no problems with fungi or pests such as whiteflies or spider-mites occurred and a huge batch of plump, succulent peppers was harvested with 8 weeks.

Chapter #23: Organic Plastics!

Most all modern plastics can be classified by definition as being “organic” because they are made of compounds containing Carbon atoms.

There is now a new breed of plastics known as Polylactide Polymers (PLA) being developed by Cargill Dow Polymers LCC®©™. These futuristic plastics will have a myriad of broad-reaching uses including everything from making clothes to being used as hydroponics media.

Although many long-lasting, clean plastics are available already, as outlined in our previous article “Helllloooo Poly.!”, these new plastics are heralded to be increasingly environmentally friendly due to the fact that they are readily recyclable and can actually be composted if desired. In contrast, many plastics in use today are designed to be so indestructible that they remain intact while buried in landfills and can take hundreds, if not thousands of years to fully decompose if they are not recycled.

The new PLA plastics are made using carbohydrate sugars extracted from crop plants such as corn, and they are also hoping to be able to be make them from recycled plant material and organic waste products in the future.

These plastics will be especially useful in agricultural circles for use in many areas such as potting mixes, seed trays, and hydroponics media to name a few.

Currently polyurethane and other plastics are used to make durable rooting substrates which can be steam-sterilized and used almost indefinitely until they are so packed with roots that they must be thrown away or recycled if possible. The new plastics will be able to be composted or used as mulch or soil amendments outdoors directly, saving the environment and money.

A couple of good links are: http://www.dow.com http://www.cdpoly.com

Chapter #24: Hydroponic Lettuce!

Sometime in the last millennium, at about this frosty time of year, I set up a hydroponics unit for a “friend” in their basement to grow some lettuce, and in this week’s article I’ll describe how I did it.

First, I hanged an old light fixture which contained four four foot forty Watt cool white fluorescent tubes. I used chains attached to sturdy hooks screwed into the ceiling beams, or floor joists above, depending on how you look at them.

I then taped durable, easy to clean reflective white plastic in a drape-like fashion around the perimeter of the fixture to focus all of the available light inwards towards where the plants would soon be situated.

Next, I placed an old square three foot by four foot growing tray on top of some old recycled five gallon wine juice pails.

I used an old twelve volt utility pump placed inside a large plastic reservoir to supply the nutrient solution to the tray above. The pump was powered by a power supply and it had a piece of polyethylene pipe attached from it to the tray through a thru-hull fitting (with plastic mesh placed over the end for filtration of chunks of substrate) to allow for flooding and draining of the tray.

The tray was then filled with approximately four inches of perlite and vermiculite in a ten perlite to one vermiculite ratio by volume.

I then seeded the tray by using my fingers as little “hoes” to make furrows and then I dropped the seeds in and covered them with a thin layer of the substrate mix. Then I watered them & covered them with waxed paper until they sprouted.

The lights were left on a 16 hour light cycle.

I used my usual method of checking the pH rarely and replenishing the nutrient solution according to the manufacturer’s instructions bi-weekly and using the old solution on the lawn & garden outside.

After 6 weeks of anticipation, excellent petite lettuce heads were ready to be picked and were quite delicious.

Chapter #25: Hydroponic Gardening on a Gradient!

When it comes to designing larger indoor or outdoor hydroponics gardens where relatively small water reserves are preferred or required for monitoring purposes or to reduce mass, one option is to use drip emitters to directly target plants being grown in trays on a gradient.

Comparatively small amounts of fertilizer solution can be used in this manner to supply very large quantities of plants. Large plastic trays, or wooden trays lined with plastic can be laid out and adjusted to a level so as to drain the solution back towards the nutrient container with or without the aid of tubes and hoses.

The nutrient supply chain is usually comprised of a water pump which expels the fertilizer solution into a series of pipes and fittings which are directed towards the bases of the stems of the plants where they gently deliver their load of nutritious fertilizer ions to the plants. Professional drip emitters, osmotically permeable membranous tubes, and soaker-hoses are available for reasonable prices at most hardware stores, but a system of improvised drippers made from thin poly. tubing or pipes with small holes drilled in them can easily be fashioned accordingly using a little ingenuity.

Most any substrate can be used to harbour and support the plants’ roots in the trays, and I highly recommend perlite and/or vermiculite due to their characteristic chemical neutrality and excellent moisture and air holding capabilities as well as their economical cost effectiveness and the fact that they are readily available in most areas of the world.

When using this technique to grow plants, it is good practice to regularly flush the media with fresh, clean water to clear out any excess fertilizer salts which could build up to toxic levels if left unchecked.

This method conserves water well and is generally easy to run and maintain.

Chapter #26: Perlite Pearlite Rah! Rah! Rah!

Perlite (or Pearlite) has been heralded for many years as being an excellent constituent of soil-less mixes and has more recently been appreciated for its astonishing performance as a hydroponics medium.

Perlite is a naturally occurring silicous volcanic rock that appears around the world in its raw ore state as being gray-black, but when it is quickly heated above 870 degrees Centigrade, it puffs up like popcorn and appears white.

The puffing expansion process causes the creation of a huge internal surface area of intertwining glass shards that allow for the respectively large water and air holding capabilities of the substrate. The increased volume to mass ratio also makes perlite very lightweight and easy to use. The light weight can cause difficulties in stabilizing larger plants, but this is usually overcome simply by using strings or netting attached to structural supports.

This “organic” glass media has excellent water and air holding characteristics, along with being physically durable and stable, and chemically inert and neutral as well.

Many people prefer the air to water holding capabilities of perlite over other substances because the balanced air to water ratio present in perlite can reduce the chances of over or under watering due to the fact that it provides both excellent drainage and capillary action when water is applied.

Perlite is also very clean and sterile when purchased because of the physical processing it endures which can reduce the possibility of fungal or bacterial infestation occurring.

Try doing a search for “Perlite” in one of your favourite search engines for more information.

Chapter #27: Yardoponics!

A certain “friend” of mine asked me to consult on their Spring project this year which is to be the building of a medium sized hydroponics unit in their back-yard when the cold breaks. This article will discuss our plan of action.

Firstly, seeing as the person’s yard is fenced and facing to the west, and we are in the northern hemisphere, I plan to build the unit adjacent to the north wall for maximal Sun exposure.

Rather than planning to build the flow-plane of the hydroponics growing bed at ground level plus a few degrees which could require digging a hole in the ground for the reservoir, we will use old pails with planks on top to support our tray. A large RubbermadeÒÓÔ container will be used for the nutrient solution storage chamber and a “paddling-pool” will be used for the tray itself.

Once the pails, planks, wading pool and reservoir are erected, a fish-pump will be fitted to the tray through a thru-hull fitting using clamps, pipe, and/or tubing and it will subsequently be controlled on a line using a GFCI breaker circuit to prevent accidents from happening.

The substrate of choice for our hydroponics unit will be Perlite with a little Peat, Dolomitic Limestone, and Vermiculite mixed in for balance.

We will be using a commercial grade multi-purpose hydroponics nutrient fertilizer formula mixed according to the manufacturer’s directions and applied and monitored accordingly using common sense.

A very strong (~2X) fertilizer nutrient stock solution will be mixed in the reservoir and used to “cauterise” or “burn-in” the plastic components and media for half a day to reduce any chance of phyto- or other possible bio-toxicity and to condition and prepare the media. The solution will then be discarded on ornamental plants.

Tomatoes, Eggplants, Corn and other plants will then be planted in the tray and grown to hugeness.

Chapter #28: Gravimetric Cost-Reduced Redundancy Optimized Hydroponics!

One of the most simplistic, productive, and energy-efficient hydroponics technology implementations I have ever seen was a complex in which gigantic, humongous plants were grown in plastic-lined troughs which were filled with “organic” substrates.

The troughs were constructed from wooden planks and plastic liner in such a manner as to accommodate being filled with a mixture of Pearlite, Dolomitic limestone, and Vermiculite. A complete hydroponics fertilizer nutrient solution formula was intermittently mixed and cycled through the troughs to feed and moisturize (hydrate) the plants. This was accomplished using gravity alone by having one end of the trough raised slightly higher than the other end. At the elevated end, a reservoir was situated which was refilled with the fertilizer solution by hand once a day by carrying it from the collection reservoir fixed at the lower end where the excess solution would gather by means of a through-hull fitting inserted into the trough.

The solution was delivered to the plants using an array of intertwining poly. pipes and accompanying fittings that had holes drilled in them accordingly.

While gains are achieved in operating a system that is very technologically minimalist and easy to manage, you are forced to compromise for lack of precise control over the nutrient solution delivery. Powered pumps allow for continuously applied uniform pressure distribution, but having to rely on gravity introduces pressure loss according to the water mass present in the elevated reservoir which obviously fluctuates according to cycling frequencies.

It can be argued that the expense of purchasing a continuous-duty water pump would be negated by the ensuing reduction in physical labor requirements and production increase possibilities attainable through nutrient solution dispersal optimization capabilities. However, in regions where lack of pump availability is a problem, gravimetric hydroponics methods can be extremely advantageous.

Chapter #29: Evapotranspiration Control in Hydroponics!

The term “evapo-transpiration” refers to a combination of evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation is the loss of water from the area surrounding the plants’ root zone (the rhizome) whereas transpiration is the flow of water through the plants, with water initially being absorbed by the roots, and then some being lost through the plants’ stomata (little holes on the underside of the leaves, akin to humans’ pores for sweat). Transpiration takes place in conjunction with the photosynthetic cycle where carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapour chemically combine producing carbohydrates (sugars) for energy, and releasing oxygen and excess water vapour.

In conventional gardening and farming outdoors and in greenhouses, it can be beneficial to control and reduce evapo-transpiration rates to reduce water usage where it is scarce. This can also be useful in hydroponics systems where water conservation is desired.

There are many means available to reduce water loss indoors and out such as using plastic mulches, anti-transpirant sprays such as waxes, misting the plants with water, and wind breaks but there must be a balance achieved between limiting water requirements and maintaining crop productivity and yield.

While a layer of plastic liner over the substrate will definitely reduce evaporative losses, it could also result in damage due to an oxygen deficiency occurring in the root zone which would reduce crop yield potential (see our previous article on oxygen availability). For this reason, if plastic mulches are to be used (preferably opaque white ones to reduce algae growth and to reflect light back up towards the plants leaves), they should be cut away from the area directly surrounding the plants’ stem and roots to allow for air exchange and oxygen replenishment. We recommend using a permeable cloth such as landscape fabric which will reduce evaporation significantly, while allowing for the roots to “breathe”.

Cuttings and transplants can gain from the use of clear plastic or glass humidity domes and/or anti-tranpirant sprays that help to prevent shock inset due to water loss. These allow for faster acclimatisation to their new growing environment, but care should be taken to avoid stifling the plants. Another method that has been proven to be effective is to prune some of the larger leaves off of the cutting or transplant.

Chapter #30: Hydroponics Zone Gardening!

A radical new next-generation style of hydroponics gardening in “zones” may prove to be one of the most groundbreaking and optimally efficient systems ever developed.

The technique involves using trough-style growing bed trays stacked and aligned in such a manner as to allow for gravity-fed moisturization of the crops. See the minimalist illustration.

We recommend using cheap gutters or hand-built wooden canals lined with appropriate polymer membranes. The trays can then be mounted using hangers (brackets) attached to metal, polymer, or wooden support structures.

The “A-Frame” technique has also been adapted very successfully using Aeroponics growth principles by having the frame support a “skin” with holes in it for supporting plants which are misted from inside and the nutrient solution is re-circulated.

The system’s plumbing can consist of polymer through-hull fittings, pipes, tubing, hoses, clamps, washers, grommets, and usually an efficient and reliable water pump.

Perlite (Pearlite) and/or Vermiculite, Coir, Dolomitic (Horticultural Grade) Limestone, and many other media may be used as the substrate for the plants roots.

Many people prefer using the Nutrient Film Technique (“NFT”) to eliminate the necessity for using substrate media at all where the fertilizer nutrient solution mixture is fed through the trays at such a rate that a film of the liquid constantly circulates over the plants roots. This film must be kept thin to allow for maximal oxygen diffusion. . The recommended values for thickness and flow rate are 0.4-1.9 liters/min. @ 0.5mm-1.2cm film thickness (1:35-1:45 grade slope) with each run before fresh nutrient addition being ~<=20 feet.

The “growth-plane” can be sculpted and manipulated to allow for maximisation of light absorption capabilities. Light photon intensity uniformity is usually sought after for productivity potential optimisation.

This technique has been proven to be most effective and productive for growing short plants like lettuce or spinach in places such as greenhouses where ample diffuse lighting is available.

Artificial lights can be hung where artificial lighting is the predominant source available for photosynthesis necessitating the use of supplemental lighting.

Chapter #31: Hydroponics Viruses, Bacteria, and Fungi!

Viral ,bacterial, fungal, and/or other biological invasions (like the infamous Tobacco Mosaic virus and the well known Pythium spp. to name a couple) are some of the most frightening things to both professional and amateur gardeners everywhere around the world. They are the root cause of millions of dollars worth of damage occurring each year and result in the destruction of many crop and ornamental plants.

Many strains of plants have been developed that are resistant to prevalent strains of possible micro- and macroscopic invaders, but problems can occur with many species. Preventative maintenance, cleanliness, and diligence can help to reduce the risk of incursions from happening.

Sand filters are used in many places to “quarantine” sections of some Hydroponics facilities, preventing destructive viral transmissions between different sections of the crop plants being grown. The fertilizer nutrient solution is re-circulated through trays or pipes filled with fine sand that serves to allow for viral isolation and eradication. Sand filters can thusly be used in a combination de-nitrifying/anti-viral manner.

It is always a good idea to practice using clean, porous growing media substrates such as Pearlite or Coir to prevent harboring fungal &/or bacterial colonies. The internal matrix structure of Perlite makes it have very beneficial physical characteristics such as; well-balanced water:air holding ratio capacity, light weight, and relatively high capillary force potential.

Ozone (O3), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and ultra-violet light (~) applying devices are sometimes used to guard against pests by certain people, but they can have unwanted side-effects like fertilizer nutrient degradation and toxicity.

Steam treatment is the preferred method of media cleaning because it is non-toxic and environmentally friendly, yet very effective.

Copper-sulph(f)ate can also been used in solution to fight fungi, but may result in harm to certain types of plants like Bromeliads (Epiphitic “Air-Plants”).

Disinfectants and anti-fungals/virulants/biotics such as soap, sulfur, Mercuric chloride, alcohol, Benzalkonium chloride, Sodium hypochlorite, Silver nitrate, Calcium peroxide, Calcium hypochlorite, and Potassium permanganate can also be used on selected plants, substrates, solutions, cuttings, seeds, clones, tools, and surroundings beneficially to eliminate uninvited guests, but many are poisonous and should be avoided or handled respectfully to avoid problems.

There have also been recent rumours of beneficial bacteria & various other types of micro-organisms being developed and bred through hybridization and genetic engineering (biotechnology) that are able to diminish unfriendly pathogens such as specialized Fungi species capable of destroying Dandelions, and others such as Mycorrhizae which aid in nutrient gathering.

The implications are mind-boggling to say the least.

Chapter #32: Hydroponics Plastics!

According to the substantial evidence documented and available for viewing at

http://www.livrite.com/plastic.htm

http://www.foodscience.afisc.csiro.au/

http://www.greenpeaceusa.org/media/facts…

http://www.greenpeace.org/pressreleases/…

, and

http://www.turnertoys.com/PVC_framepage1…

certain types of polymer plastics such as Poly-Vinyl Chloride (PVC) and others can potentially contain and subsequently release possibly harmful chemicals such as Chlorine (Cl), phthalate, and “xenoestrogens” into their surroundings. The rate of diffusion increases proportionally with the ambient temperature. These chemicals are added during production to increase the plastics’ desirable physical properties such as durability, elasticity, and malleability. PVC is supposedly also hard to recycle.

Some would argue that people using polymers in the containers that they use to grow edible plants using Hydroponics or Aeroponics or whatever should obviously opt to use materials available such as recyclable “food-grade” High-Density Polyethylene (HPDE) or the new Organic polymers being produced from plant bio-mass (see our previous article “Organic Plastics!).

In contrast, people growing strictly ornamental plants such as Orchids, Roses, Peonies, Grasses, Privet Hedges, Oaks, certain vines, or what have you can get away with using so called “construction” or “utility” grade liners, even those that may leech toxic substances which their plants will absorb.

The myth that “specialized” plastics may be hard to acquire is simply that. Many companies manufacture “food-grade” polymer lining materials.

The truth is that many plastic polymers are inert and virtually impervious to degradation, which is the reason that they have become so popular for use in the production and manufacture of everything from wading or “paddling” pools to water bottles and straws.

It has also been said that most “virgin” plastics, which may host inherently toxic substances, can be conditioned and prepared for use by washing and rinsing them with strong fertilizer solutions prior to using them for edible plants. They can also be used to grow a crop or two of ornamentals first to “burn them in” after-which they will be acceptable.

Chapter #33: Back 2 Basics!

Hello, this month’s Hydroponics gardening article will begin a fully graphically integrated retrospective journey into the most popular automated Hydroponics methods currently being applied throughout the World producing healthy, fast growing crops and ornamental plants. This is the first in a series of six or seven pieces that will demystify Hydroponics gardening processes revealing the basic underlying fundamental principles involved.

The six main Hydroponics schemata are; the “raft” or “pool” technique, the wick method, the “ebb & flo” configuration, the nutrient film technique or “NFT”, the drip array style, and the futuristic application of aeroponics technology. There are of course many other variations imaginable, and more simplistic methods such as growing plants in troughs or containers and feeding them manually.

One of the easiest of the different types of hydroponics fashions to apply is the raft technique where plants are grown on a floating raft, or other support structure such as rigid plastic or netting, over a reservoir of fertilizer nutrient solution. The plants’ roots are allowed to grow into the solution where they can selectively acquire necessary nutrient ions for biomass production. The nutrient solution is usually aerated using an air pump to increase the available oxygen required for cellular respiration to increases yields.

Here is a basic graphical representation of how the raft system is made up:

The raft system can be advantageous due to its simplicity in construction, but variables such as nutrient solution management control and restricted oxygen availability to the plants’ roots can cause problems.

The relatively high nutrient solution to plant volume ratio involved can be both beneficial and detrimental as the large quantity of fertilizer solution can act to buffer pH, temperature, and nutrient levels well, but monitoring and concentration (TDS or EC or ppm) testing are usually required regularly unless batch dumping is applied frequently which imposes the problem of regulating runoff into the environment.

Chapter #34: Back 2 Basics Part Deux!

This week’s installment in my continuing series of articles explaining the main different varieties of Hydroponics techniques developed throughout history and in use today around the Earth will focus on the so called “Wick” systems and their means of implementation.

The Hydroponics wick configurations bare similarities to the raft setups (see my previous article “Back 2 Basics”) in that the plants are suspended in support materials such as nets or plastic barriers above a reservoir of the fertilizer nutrient solution mixture that supplies the plants with the required necessary essential ions that they need to grow.

The difference between the two methods is that the raft technique allows for the plants’ roots to soak directly in the fertilizer solution, whereas the wick method usually envelops the plants’ roots in conventional growing media like Perlite (or Pearlite) or Sphagnum Peat-Moss or gravel or sand or Coir or whatever in isolation above the nutrient mixture and uses a hydrophilic (water attracting) media such as organic or synthetic polymer or natural fiber rope or felt as a wick to draw the nutrient solution up to the plants’ roots against gravity via capillary action.

Here is a minimalist diagrammatical depiction of how a wick system is put together:

The benefits of this system are increased oxygen levels in the root zone without the necessity of additional air pumps, and automation of nutrient delivery in the absence of electrical liquid pumps. These advantages, along with the relative simplicity in design make wick systems very efficient and popular among many hydroponicists.

As with the raft systems discussed earlier, the relatively high fertilizer volume to plant mass ratios involved can be both advantageous and unfavorable as the relatively large reservoir of liquid nutrient mixture can act as a buffer for environmental variables, but this can complicate monitoring and control. Methods such as automation using float valves or siphons to regulate solution levels and allow for volume reduction are often used to increase the ease of execution, and these methods will be discussed in an upcoming article.

Chapter #35: Back 2 Basics Part Três!

The focal topic of this month’s Suite101.com Hydroponics Gardening article will be a frothy and informative discussion of the myriad of approaches utilised to consummate the hydroponics gardening technique generally referred to as the “drip method”.

This method is characterized by having some tray(s) or other container(s) used to hold the growing media or substrate to provide structural support of the plants’ roots into which the ionic fertilizer nutrient solution is dripped via poly. tubing or pipes from a stock reservoir. The dripping furnishes the plants with essential hydration and atomic compounds enabling them to build their structures and produce fruit or vegetative growth, depending.

The nutrient solution supply chain can consist of such things as simple poly. hoses with holes drilled in them, or pre-formed manufactured horticultural drip lines, or sweat-soaker hoses, etc. that are usually fed using a simple and efficient submersible pump sitting in the nutrient tank. Any excess nutrient juice that the plants don’t use is returned to the reservoir using thru-hull fittings and hoses or tubing. The level of any latent solution left in the containers can be adjusted according to the positioning of the return fittings.

The drip system allows for quick and easy modularization by allowing for one reservoir to be able to supply the nutrients for many planting “zones”, although it is always preferable to have more than one supply of fertilizer solution available just in case one batch ends up being contaminated or improperly monitored and adjusted resulting in nutrient imbalances.

Here is an unsophisticated illustration of a drip irrigation system:

Drip systems can be moulded into some of the most water sparing and efficient techniques possible as the nutrient solution can be aimed directly towards the plants’ roots without any wastage.

One common problem with these systems is that toxic salts can build up in the rhizome causing plant damage and bio-mass production ratio reduction. This consequence can be avoided by performing routine flushing on a regular basis to wash away any unused fertilizer ions.

Chapter #36: Back 2 Basics Part Vier!

This article will explain the basic fundamental principles involved with the hydroponics method normally referred to as the “ebb & flo(w)” or “flood (fill) & drain” technique.

The “ebb & flo” method can be one of the most simplistic types of hydroponics gardening styles to implement and control because of it’s intrinsic unsophisticated nature. This comparative ease of application should not mask the possible beneficial production advantages.

The basis for these systems is to have (a) growing tray(s) or channel(s) that hold(s) the growing media into which the fertilizer nutrient solution is forced using gravity or an appropriate pump. This influx of ion-rich liquid subsequently forces air out of the growing media and when the pump stops, the nutrient drains out to a level determined by the relative positioning of the transfer fittings with fresh oxygenated air being sucked back into the substrate. The nutrient juice flow is cycled using a timer adjusted according to the specific growth stage requirements and atmospheric conditions present.

The exact liquid levels achieved are dependent on the placement of the fill & drain fittings as seen in the series of diagrams.

The 1st diagram represents a system in which there is only 1 fitting where the nutrient is pumped in to a level determined by the power of the pump, and when the pump shuts off, all the nutrient is allowed to drain out.

The next picture shows the same basic setup, but a “riser” is attached to the fill/drain fitting to keep a certain level of liquid in the tray. This can be used where infrequent waterings are desirable, but less concentrated solution should be used to prevent toxicity if the level is allowed to decrease greatly due to evapo-transpiration.

The 3rd diagram shows a system where a second fitting is used to control the maximum level to which the pump is allowed to raise the solution before it is drained.

The 4th drawing is basically the same as the 3rd, but the drain level is increased as with graphic #2.

The last representation exhibits a style where, according to the fittings used, a given amount of nutrient solution is expelled each cycle. This allows for use of fresh fertilizer each time, thereby decreasing the risk of imbalances, but the cost is accounting for environmental runoff. This runoff should be managed as with used nutrient solution from a recycling system where the excess solution should be used to fertilize other crops to prevent environmental damage.

Chapter #37: Back 2 Basics Part V!

The hydroponics method normally referred to as the “Nutrient Film Technique” or “N.F.T.” is a somewhat popular technique in which specified plants are grown in troughs or trays or gullies. These structures are aligned in such a manner as to allow for ionic fertilizer nutrient solution to be pumped in to one end of the system and subsequently flow over the plants’ roots in a thin film. This film constantly circulates over the plants roots providing them with the required nutrients for growth. The film thickness is optimally very thin (0.5mm-1.2cm) in order to increase the ease with which oxygen can penetrate to the plants’ roots via osmosis.

Certain people have a preference for using N.F.T. over other methods in order to do away with the usual requirement for using media to support the plants’ roots.

The nutrient solution flow rate, slope, and distance before re-circulation and injection of “fresh” fertilizer nutrient solution of the trays must also be monitored and adjusted. This is to allow for proper nutrient and oxygen uptake by the plants. The recommended values are 0.4-1.9 liters/min flowing over a 1:35-1:45 grade slope with each run before fresh nutrient addition being ~<=20 feet according to industry resources.

Please take a look at the accompanying diagram that illustrates the basic building blocks of a simple N.F.T. system.

People typically use flat-bottomed trays to increase the ease of achieving uniform thickness in the nutrient film.

The beneficial aspects of the N.F.T. system are, as mentioned earlier, the elimination of the necessity of using growth media, as well as the supposed increase in oxygen availability to the plants’ roots. Without proper planning and monitoring these advantageous properties can be voided by fluctuations in the system parameters. Exact flow rates and film thickness can be very complex, intricate, and thorny aspects to control.

Chapter #38: Back 2 Basics Part 6!

This edition of our periodical monthly hydroponics articles will deal with the fascinating and ever-more popular hybrid crop production techniques collectively known as Aeroponics.

Aeroponics refers to a plethora of various methods where growing plants have their roots suspended in the air, and their essential nutrients and hydration is supplied via miniscule water droplets that permeate the closed atmosphere. This is usually achieved by suspending the plants above a mist chamber into which the plants’ roots are allowed to enter. Inside the chamber, a reserve of ionic fertilizer nutrient mixture is atomized using re-circulating pumps with attached misting nozzles, or spinning water agitators, or more recently ultrasonic buzzing devices. There are a myriad of different designs possible that will function properly according to circumstances.

Please check out the simplified schematic that depicts a “cloning” chamber that was built using a cheap poly. utility tub and lid, inside which was placed a “fish-pump” with an attached misting nozzle used to fill the chamber with nutrient-rich water droplets. Small holes were cut in the lid of the chamber and a layer of appropriate poly. film with slits cut into it was placed on top to allow cuttings to be inserted into the top of the chamber. This unit was tested and was shown to be able to produce remarkably healthy “clones” much more quickly than with traditional techniques in soil or soil-less mixes.

The main benefits of using the aeroponics method include the ability to reduce or eliminate the need to use media or substrates to support the plants’ roots (as with NFT), the markedly improved growth rate due to oxygen availability to the plants’ roots, and the increased reduction in transplant shock achievable.

The drawbacks of the system include complications due to water droplet size and air:water ratio variability where plant dry weight production can be reduced if droplets are too big or too small, and the need for having watering schedules optimized. In the latter case, many units can use the always-on technique, or they can experiment to achieve the best rates of on and off times according to their situation (plant size, number, growth stage, etc.).

Refer to our previous article “Electronic Ultrasonic Aeroponic Fogaponic Nutrient Delivery” for more info. and links.

Chapter #39: Back 2 Basics Part 7!

The term “sub-irrigation” describes the vast numbers of hydroponics growing methods which focus on increasing their production efficiency by delivering the required nutrient solution directly to the plants’ roots; “sub” referring to the application occurring under or below the media surface (in the rhizome).

The delivery of the solution directly to the plants’ roots can dramatically decrease the amount of water lost through evaporation, thereby increasing the dry weight to evapo-transpiration production yield ratio.

Many different styles of hydroponics growing fashions involve variations of sub-irrigation techniques and could be classified as such, but this article is specifically oriented towards describing the use of such items as “soaker”-hoses, drip-lines, etc. that are implanted below the surface.

Sub-irrigation systems are usually designed in a similar way as to the previously described hydroponics drip systems in that the delivery apparatus is designed to move fertilizer nutrient solution from a reservoir to the plants roots as efficiently as possible. This usually involves the use of a pump and various types of delivery lines. Please refer to the diagram that shows a basic configuration.

Recently polymers and other new materials have been developed that allow for inventions such as micro-pore tubules and precision drippers that can be useful depending on circumstances.

The main benefits of using the various sub-irrigation techniques are the increased water conservation potential requirement during nutrient delivery and the ability to have optimal control over nutrient and water utilization.

Drawbacks of sub-irrigation arrangements can be the variability in uniformity with time due to sub-surface root blockage and salt buildup, and the detrimental implementation complexity associated where large plant numbers are to be grown. Some manufacturers are supplying emitters that have been treated with pesticide to prevent root blockage. Blockage can be prevented using mechanical barriers and maintenance.

Sub-irrigation can also be difficult when using any insoluble or particulate or organic nutrients and/or supplements due to the possibility of clogging occurring.